Andrew Dunkley: Hi there. Thanks for joining us on a Q and A edition
of Space Nuts. My name is Andrew Dunkley.
It's always good to have your company. Thanks for joining
us. All right, uh, what are we doing today? We're
answering audience questions from all around the
place. Well, mainly Australia, but one from New
Orleans asking about black holes and plasma
bursts. Uh, and Jordy wants to know where
his food is. Uh, we're also talking about the
minimum temperature of space, the effect of gas or on
light and the starshot mission.
That's all coming up in this edition of space
nuts.
Voice Over Guy: 15 seconds. Guidance is internal.
10, 9. Ignition
sequence start. Space nuts.
Andrew Dunkley: 5, 4, 3. 2.
Professor Fred Watson: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3,
2, 1. Space nuts. Astronauts report
it feels good.
Andrew Dunkley: And joining us along with Jordy, not Jaunty Joe
Jordy. Uh, it's professor Fred Watson, astronomer at large.
Hello, Fred.
Professor Fred Watson: Hello, Andrew. Uh, yes, John. Um, John,
Jordy's in the back.
Johnty's not. Yeah,
Jordy the dog.
Andrew Dunkley: He's um, he's always welcome on the show.
Always welcome on the show.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, he had a good walk with me this morning. I, I'm
good fettle.
Andrew Dunkley: I'm sure he did. Um, now you're so
tall and he's so small, I bet his legs go 20 to the
dozen.
Professor Fred Watson: M quite cute to watch.
Andrew Dunkley: Be like a little wind up.
Professor Fred Watson: It's what it's like. Yeah, absolutely.
Andrew Dunkley: Oh, gosh.
Um, now I, I, I, we, we, we've got some
questions, a couple of text and a couple of audio.
Now I uh, must, uh, preempt
this by saying I had an eye check this
morning and I had to have my pupils
dilated. Right now what I'm looking at
is absolute gobbledygook
and it's very hard for me to read.
Professor Fred Watson: So please, you want me to read it?
Andrew Dunkley: I'll give it a go.
Professor Fred Watson: Give it a go.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, everything's, it's all double vision
and blurry. Um, but anyway, let's, let's
see what, uh, happens.
Uh, this question comes from Jim in New Orleans.
I read where the Hubble telescope last
fall. I assume you mean autumn for the people in the
rest of the world. Um, I read where the Hubble
telescope last fall observed what appeared to be a
plasma beam of 3,000 light years emanating
from, from the black hole at the center of Galaxy M
M87 doing well so far.
That black hole was estimated to be
6.5 billion solar masses.
I realized that questions concerning black holes
are rather rare. Uh, on the
podcast, however, I understand that When a
plasma, uh, cools on Earth, it can either
return to its original, original gaseous
elemental state, or it can potentially
reform into completely different elements. Given the
near absolute zero temperatures in space,
I believe that at some point the plasma beam
from, uh, uh, the uh,
black hole at M. M87 will eventually cool.
Rather than being cursed as the ultimate destroyer
of matter in the universe, perhaps black holes should be
considered the ultimate recyclers of
matter instead. Love the podcast.
Uh, all the best. Cheers.
Jim in New Orleans. Uh,
is he on the money?
Professor Fred Watson: Well, it's an interesting question. Yes. Uh, I mean, I think
he's, he's right in the sense that
the plasma, when it cools,
um, will,
uh, essentially turn, you know,
what's a plasma? A plasma is an ionized gas.
So it's a gas with an electrical charge. It's
an electrified gas. When it loses its
charge, it basically stays the same
gas, uh, but is
cooler. Uh, now the completely
different elements idea would involve nuclear
processes because, uh, that's the only way you can
change the elements, despite what
the, um, what the alchemists used to try and do.
Uh, you can do it with accelerators. Uh, and
it may well be that, uh, the conditions in
some plasmas, like the one from the M87
black hole, maybe they do, um,
have collisions between the,
uh, the ionized atoms, uh,
that are of such high energy that you might split them
or something of that. So I'm not familiar with that because
I'm not a particle physicist, but in that regard, yes,
if that happens, you've got, uh, a nice
recycling process which, um,
you know, is what goes on in a nuclear reactor as well.
Uh, but nice to hear from you, Jim. Uh, glad you're enjoying
the podcast too.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, um, there's so much happening when it comes
to black holes. I mean, there's just. Yes,
you know, it's not just the plasma. It's,
it's um, you know, the
hunger, if I can use that term, black
holes, uh, they get the munchies. They probably smoke
too much pot.
Professor Fred Watson: Um, is that what happens when you smoke too
much pot?
Andrew Dunkley: Apparently, I've been told, yeah. Yeah,
Medical paper once,
I spent a lot of time reading those.
Um, but yeah, they're very active,
um, parts of the, the
universe. And there's so much we know that
they do, but we don't know so much more about
them. And we've, uh, only in recent times been
able to image them. Yep, not so much
photographs, but, um, it, uh, was infrared, wasn't
it?
Professor Fred Watson: That's Radio signals in the Event
Horizon Telescope. That's right. And that's where this image comes from
that, that Jim's talking about.
Andrew Dunkley: Okay, so, um, yeah, the.
And, and we get so very many
questions about them. They. One of the great
mysteries. Sorry.
Professor Fred Watson: And I'll just correct what I just said. Uh, the,
the Hubble telescope is certainly, um, what
observed that, uh, plasma beam. Uh,
but M87, of course, has had its,
its structure, uh, imaged by the Event Horizon
Telescope. Sorry, just. Just correcting myself there.
Andrew Dunkley: That's okay. It's all good. Thank you, Jim.
Professor Fred Watson: Appreciate.
Andrew Dunkley: Uh, the question.
Uh, our next question comes from, uh, one of our
regulars, Buddy. Uh, we'll see
what, uh, he's got on his mind this time.
Buddy: Well, hello. This is Buddy from
Morgan. All right, guys, um, I
got one more good one. I'll leave you alone
for a while. Uh,
is the minimum temperature of space,
like, in the dark? Uh, is that gonna get
lower as the universe spreads out? And
if so, is that going to affect how things
root in the universe react? Like, is that going to
make the hydrogen or, you know,
like helium turn into a liquid or something?
Um, all right, thanks, guys.
Andrew Dunkley: Uh, thank you, Buddy. Um, so as the
universe is expanding, is the minimum temperature
of space going to get lower? And what effect
might that have on the elements? I think that's sort of the
pricey.
Professor Fred Watson: That's a nice pricey. Um, and,
uh, Buddy's rice, it is getting
lower. Uh, so, uh,
the minimum temperature of space is
essentially the temperature, uh, that we record
from the cosmic background radiation, which
is 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
Uh, so 2.7 degrees Kelvin is the temperature
of space. Uh, and,
uh, if you think about what that temperature
was when the universe was much younger than it
is now, certainly, uh, in the
aftermath of the Big Bang, that temperature was, you know,
5, 6, 7,000 degrees Kelvin.
So as the universe has expanded,
that temperature has fallen. And that
2.7 degrees is what we have now. And
as the universe continues to expand, it will continue
to cool, but not at a rate that would ever be
detectable by human instruments. But it is
cooling. Um, whether that changes
the, you know, the circumstances
of clouds of gas or whatever is a
different question. And I suspect the answer is no.
Uh, it may, you know, it would have a
superficial effect, but I don't think it's
got any really fundamental effect on the
makeup of the, of the cosmos.
Andrew Dunkley: Okay, um, let's focus
on the, the Kelvin scale for a
moment. Ah, it's, it's a measure of
temperature based on the absolute,
absolute zero, lowest temperature.
Professor Fred Watson: That's right. And
that temperature is defined by
being the temperature at which all
motion of atoms stops. So
temperature is um, a vibration of
atoms. So as a solid gets warmer, the
atoms vibrate more. As a liquid gets warmer,
the atoms sort of slosh around more. And
as a gas gets warmer, the atoms whiz around
much faster, uh, in space. So um,
the three states of matter there, uh,
that, uh, that's to say that
um, uh, at, at zero degrees
Kelvin, uh, all atomic motion
stops and we know it's absolutely
zero. I think, um, some modern laboratories
have got within a gazillionth of a degree of absolute zero.
But it's one of those things you can never actually reach,
uh, and get something that's whose
atoms have stopped. As far as I know. Um, I might be wrong there, there might
be physics laboratories where that's actually been done. But.
Andrew Dunkley: Right, well, if you have, you know, chances are if you did achieve
it, you'd never get home from work. Quite,
you wouldn't be able to move.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: So, so obviously this is a dumb
question, but, um, if you like, when you
freeze a tray of ice in your fridge,
you've got an old fashioned fridge like me where you have to actually get the thing
out, fill it with water and put it in and.
Professor Fred Watson: Wait, you do that too?
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah. Um, that's not
absolute zero. So there's still
movement.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah. In the atoms.
Andrew Dunkley: In the atoms, yes, that's right.
Professor Fred Watson: Even though the ice looks pretty inert, uh, the
fact that it's probably, uh,
well, absolute zero is minus 273
degrees Celsius. So if you're cooling it down
to, you know, -13 or something, then you've
still got another 260 degrees to
go before you get to absolute zero. So there's
still plenty of movement in the atoms of your ice. Yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: What about out in the depths of the solar system
where the ice is so cold that
it's the same as rock here?
Is that anywhere near absolute zero?
Professor Fred Watson: It's about um, uh,
minus 190 on the
surface of Titan, which is where ice is
certainly effectively rock. It's as hard as rock,
uh, hard as granite I think was the way, um,
Jonti described it last week. Yeah, um,
but even then you still, you know,
83 degrees away from absolute zero.
Wow. Uh, it's a very, very cold temperature.
Andrew Dunkley: Sure is. Um, yeah, I,
I, I, it's hard to imagine that kind of cold when
the temperature outside here gets to 9 degrees. That's enough
for me.
Professor Fred Watson: Yes, yeah,
yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: Uh, so just to clarify one more
point. Um, um, so absolute
zero. Even though the universe is
cooling, absolute zero is still absolute
zero. That's not going to alter.
Professor Fred Watson: That's right. Yes, that's right. And, and the universe
isn't at, uh, that temperature yet. It's 2.7 degrees
above it still.
Buddy: Okay.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah. And that's the leftover heat of the Big Bang.
Andrew Dunkley: Right. But it's slowly diminishing
as, as the universe expands.
Professor Fred Watson: That's right.
Andrew Dunkley: But it could take a while to get down.
Professor Fred Watson: Could it ever get down another degree? It
will probably. If the universe
carries on behaving as it does now. Uh, as it
continues to expand. Yep. The temperature will continue to
go down. Uh, it will never
reach absolute zero. It might approach it
asymptotically, which means it gets nearer and
nearer, but takes longer and longer to do
that.
Andrew Dunkley: Right, okay. Very interesting. Great question,
buddy. Thanks for sending it in. Good to hear
from you as always.
This is Space Nuts, Andrew Dunkley here with
Professor Fred Watson.
Professor Fred Watson: Three, two, one.
Andrew Dunkley: Space Nuts. Now, if my eyes do not
deceive me, I have a text question in front of me. Or it could just
be a message from my wife that I probably shouldn't read.
Uh, no, it's a question. We
know that light travels at slightly different
speeds in different mediums. Uh, we also
see different mediums affect light via
refraction since this is somewhat related
to the density of gas. Can pressure affect
this? Uh, if we go to the
extreme case, is it possible for enough pressure,
ah, of a gas, I assume cloud,
or enough pressure of a gas in
general to push back on light itself and
stop it? That comes from Jacob in Western
Australia. Um, I assume Western
Australia. It could be an American state that has the abbreviation
Wa I believe there is one, so
could be either. But um,
this reminds me of an experiment they did
not so long ago where they actually did
claim to have stopped light.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, that's right. Um, so you can
stop photons. Um, and I'm
not sure about the
mechanism that is used to do that. It's not just
pressure. There's more to it than that.
I think it involves basically grabbing
hold of photons using optical
tweezers, uh, to stop the light.
Uh, and so you can stop light. It's been done
exactly as you've said, Andrew. But, uh, it's not just
pressure. Pressures does have an interesting. I mean
it does affect the gas. So refraction,
the refraction of gas is invent, is
affected by the pressure of the gas. Um,
what also is affected
Is if you send light of a single
wavelength through a gas at
high pressure, um, it will spread
into adjacent wavelengths. It uh, means that,
you know, the way we see it is as a spectrum line. If
you send that light through a
rain, sorry, a prism or something like
that, you'll uh, end up with a single line of
light corresponding to that color which corresponds
to uh, a certain wavelength.
Pressure actually broadens that and so these
lines become wider. Uh, the process
is called guess what? Pressure broadening.
And um, um, that's what we see.
Uh, and that's actually how we can
use light, uh, from stars to
measure the pressure in the atmosphere of the star,
uh, by how much the line of
light is broadened.
Andrew Dunkley: Okay, okay. All right.
Um, I was just reading something that,
um, because we were talking about the fact that they have
stopped light in a lab,
um, the way they did it
was um, they used, as you said, a
special medium like um, a cloud of
ultra cold atoms.
Professor Fred Watson: Yes, that's right.
Andrew Dunkley: Trapped the light's photons and it
effectively brought the light to a complete standstill
for a brief period. And that was work that was
pioneered by physicists, um,
uh, lean Howe, uh, from
the Bose Einstein, um.
Condensate. Condensate.
Professor Fred Watson: Condensate, yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: So, yes, your eyes aren't working.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, well, you're doing well actually. You're doing very well. If I,
um. The eyes that you've got at the moment, I couldn't read any of the stuff that
you're looking at. A, um, Bose Einstein
condenser is basically, uh,
it says peculiar state of matter
where it behaves as a single quantum object.
Uh, so you know, you put all the atoms
together and they all behave like one object. It's a bit like
entanglement.
Andrew Dunkley: Right. It's headache y stuff, isn't it?
Professor Fred Watson: It is, yeah. A very headache, yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: Um, we gave uh, Jonti a lot of headaches while he was.
Professor Fred Watson: Oh, good. Well that's good. He
complained his keep then every time.
Andrew Dunkley: He was constantly having
headaches. Um. All right, uh, so we
covered Jacob's question effectively.
Professor Fred Watson: I, uh, hope so. Um, it's uh, really all I've got
to say about it. Unless you want to throw in a couple of.
Andrew Dunkley: Oh no, you're getting into the realm
of science fiction if you ask me to start talking about this.
Professor Fred Watson: That's all right. That's perfectly acceptable.
Andrew Dunkley: Thanks, Jacob. Great. Uh, question.
Okay, we checked all four systems,
space nets, and our final question
today comes from Ash in
Brisbane.
Jonti: G'day Fred and Andrew. Ash from Brisbane
here. Um, got a bit of a mind bender
question for you. I'm, uh, just wondering if we
were to take one of the breakthrough star shot
micro spacecraft that we're going to send through to Alpha
Centauri, but launch it 90 degrees to the
plane of our galaxy, how far, ah,
and for how long? Going to have to travel before I can look back
and see what our galaxy looks like from the outside.
Interested to hear your thoughts. See you guys.
Love the show. Bye.
Andrew Dunkley: Thank you, Ash. I'm, uh, thinking that question
came from one of the
hypotheticals, um, that were thrown at us recently,
asking if we could go anywhere in the
universe and look at something, what would
it be? And your answer was to go outside our
galaxy and look back at it and see what it really looked like.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, that's right.
Andrew Dunkley: I think that's where that one's come from.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah.
Andrew Dunkley: So if Starshot was able to do that, uh, how long
would it take to get out there far
enough for us to be able to look back and go, oh,
look, there's our, oh gosh, we need to take the garbage
out. Um.
Professor Fred Watson: Um, so, uh, the
answer, rather remarkably, Andrew,
is a number that you quoted in our last
400,000 years. That's right.
So I'm doing that as a calculation in my head. So
Starshot is the,
it's breakthrough. Starshot is still
just a concept investigator, uh,
that the idea with the project Breakthrough
Starshot was to look at the possibilities of
accelerating a spacecraft smaller than your
mobile phone, uh, to something like a
quarter of the speed of light so that you get
to Alpha Centauri maybe
in, um, rather than in, you know,
4.3 years. Um, you get there in 16
years or something like that. 4.3 years is how long it
would take for light to get to us. Uh,
you could do it in 16 years if you were traveling at four
times a, uh, quarter of the speed of light. With
conventional rockets it takes about 60,000 years.
So that's the difference. So if you. All right,
so you accelerate your spacecraft to a quarter of the speed of
light, I reckon you need to be 100,000 light years
above the plane to see our galaxy in all
its splendor. Because that's its diameter. It's
100,000 light years in diameter. So you
push back, um, push
out one, uh, hundred thousand light years, you'll
see the whole thing, um, at, uh, a quarter of
the speed of light, that's going to take you 400,000 years. So
it's not as quick trip.
Andrew Dunkley: No, no. And, um, yeah, it makes
it very hard to um, to arrange really, because by
the time it's there, no one will have
remembered it, why it was.
Professor Fred Watson: Sent, what it was.
Andrew Dunkley: And then of course it sends back the photo. It's
800 years. 800,000 years.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, that's right. No, um, actually it's
not. It's
500,000 because, because the light travels
back at, you know, speed of light.
Andrew Dunkley: Speed of light, of course.
Professor Fred Watson: Half a million. Half a million years for the full mission.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah.
Professor Fred Watson: That's doable, I think, Andrew, don't you?
Andrew Dunkley: Oh, you know, I,
I'm, I'm a fairly patient person. I'm just
sure I'm patient. That, patient enough for that?
Professor Fred Watson: No, me neither.
Andrew Dunkley: Do you think Starshot will happen though?
Professor Fred Watson: No, I think, I think
the results that are coming out are promising. But
uh, the Starshot is only a project
to investigate whether it's feasible. Uh,
so that will wind up. Then somebody's got to put the money
in to not just build the
spacecraft, which is probably quite cheap because
it's small, uh, but to arrange for that
Mylar, uh, light sail that's going to catch the light of
the laser. And the big ticket item is the
laser itself. Yeah, we currently
don't have a laser that's anywhere near powerful enough
to uh, accelerate something to the quarter of the speed
of light.
Andrew Dunkley: Which leads me to um, uh, um,
a question without notice because we've actually, I think
in recent weeks or months had two or
three questions directly related
to sending a mission to
Alpha Centauri using Laser
United spacecraft. Um,
this is not science fiction. This is
feasible and
doable. We've uh, been doing all sorts of experiments with
spacecraft sending up wooden
satellites and things like that. But this
would probably be one of the most
efficient ways to send a long haul
spacecraft to another place.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, so you're quite right. It is doable, it's
feasible.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah.
Professor Fred Watson: Uh, but you need the technology which we don't have at the moment.
And um, uh, I mean we should
put a footnote in that. It has been done.
There's light sail experiments have already been
done, uh, in orbit around the Earth
just by the spacecraft deploying a very large
sheet of Mylar, uh, and
the ground controllers noticing the change
in the acceleration of the spacecraft as a result of that.
That's, that's been done and I think you and I covered it
actually on one of the shows. Um,
so the principle works. Uh,
light sail, that's a principle that
will actually work well. But uh,
for the kind of figures that you were talking about
sending a spacecraft to Alpha Centauri. You
need such a big laser, uh, that we
simply don't have at the moment. And it may even. You might
even have to uh, put it into orbit
around the Earth, uh because if you had it on the ground it
might fry the atmosphere or something like that.
Andrew Dunkley: Oh, that'd be fun.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, yeah, we do.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, we really need that.
Um, yeah, I love that it's
feasible. I have a
sneaking suspicion that we could never do it out of Australia
because of electricity prices and you're talking about leaving a light
on for 16 years. I mean let's face it.
Professor Fred Watson: Yes, and it's a big light too.
Andrew Dunkley: Not feasible in Australia.
Not with what we pay for.
Professor Fred Watson: You get a bill.
Andrew Dunkley: Um, another thing that uh, has fascinated me in
recent times, uh, and I read a couple of stories like this
when you were away, Fred was
uh, the ongoing development
into new engine technology for
space travel. And I know NASA's been working on
something called the Deep Space Engine.
Um, um, it's a thruster,
uh, that uh, is showing a heck of a lot of
promise in terms of its power.
Uh, it's a low cost chemical compound
engine. Uh, it's lightweight,
uh, and it promises to do some pretty amazing things if
they can perfect it. We're on the cusp
of probably achieving breakthrough
technology in terms of speed and
long haul space travel by the sound of it.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah, I think we covered um,
some stories last year about EU
ion drives and plasma drives and things like that which
are all very promising.
Andrew Dunkley: Yeah, I, yeah, I think it's uh, it's a pretty exciting
time and uh, there's a lot of development going on, a
lot of money being poured into it because there
are rewards to be gained if you can get out there.
Professor Fred Watson: Yeah. Ah.
Andrew Dunkley: And um, you probably don't like the idea
but they're. You know, we've already spoken
about uh, in the last episode or two about uh,
asteroid mining. That's a, um, that's a
mission test that's been um. Well as we
talked about in the previous episode, has fallen uh,
foul unfortunately. But that, that's just the beginning.
That's just going to be. Yes, it will continue on and of course
mining the moon for that um, that, that mineral
that's not so common on Earth. Can't remember the name of it.
Professor Fred Watson: Something called water, I think.
Andrew Dunkley: No, no, there's something else up there. Something else up there that
they.
Professor Fred Watson: Well, helium 3 is it?
Andrew Dunkley: That's it. So there's a lot going on
and um, yeah, I'm sorry to
say that profit's uh, probably the driving
force behind.
Professor Fred Watson: It in the end. That's right.
Andrew Dunkley: It's a very human thing to do.
Yep, essentially.
All right, thank you, Ash. Thanks, uh, for the question. Great
to hear from you. And don't forget, if you've got questions for
us, you're always welcome to send them to us via
our website, spacenutspodcast.com
or spacenuts IO
and you just click on the little thing at the top called
ama. Now, I know some time ago someone said, can you change
it to something else so that we know where to
send questions? Still working on
that. Not sure where that's up to. I'll have to check with
Huw in the studio, uh, as to where that's up to. But,
uh, yeah, the AMA M button @ the top is the one you
click on. When you click on that, which I'm doing right now,
you can send us a text question just, um, with your
name, email address and the message, or you can
click start recording. If you've got a device with
a microphone. It's really quite simple.
And while you're on the website, um, just randomly click
on, oh, I don't know, shop.
Speaking about profitable humans. And, uh, look at
all the, uh, Space Nuts paraphernalia. You can get
stickers, you can get T shirts, you can get mugs,
you can get, uh, polo shirts, dad
hats, bucket hats. Uh, for those
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Professor Fred Watson: I need one of those beanies for the next time we go up to the
Arctic.
Andrew Dunkley: Yes, yes. Well, when
we're up above the Arctic later this year, even though it'll be summer,
the temperatures that we don't get down to here in winter,
essentially. So we've bought ear muffs.
So we should get some Space Nuts earmuffs, I reckon.
Uh, there's also the, uh, the Space Nuts hoodie.
That's a fun item if, you know, if you want to scare
people. Not just Space Nut, but you've got a Space
Nut hoodie on that'll freak people
out. Yeah, that's all
on the Space Nuts website and plenty of other things to see and
do there. And if you want to become a Space Nut supporter,
you can do that on the Space, uh,
Nuts website as well. And thank you to all of our
patrons. Uh, um, we think you are
awesome. Um, thanks for getting behind
us. Uh, and did I say goodbye,
Fred?
Professor Fred Watson: Uh, I'm not sure whether you got there or not, actually.
Andrew Dunkley: Thank you, Fred.
Professor Fred Watson: Nice.
Good to talk to you, Andrew. And we shall speak again
soon.
Andrew Dunkley: We will indeed. And, uh, that's Professor Fred Watson,
astronomer at large. And thanks to Huw in the studio, who couldn't be with us
today because, uh, he actually thought Starshot
was real. And, um, he went, bought a
ticket, and it cost him a million
bucks. So he's out, uh, doing his second
and third job to pay it off from me, Andrew Dunkley. Thanks for your
company. Catch you on the next episode of Space Nuts. Until then,
bye bye.
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