WEBVTT 0 00:00:00.400 --> 00:00:03.040 Anna: Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source for 1 00:00:03.040 --> 00:00:05.920 the latest space and astronomy news. I'm 2 00:00:05.920 --> 00:00:06.480 Anna. 3 00:00:06.560 --> 00:00:08.960 Avery: And I'm, um, avery. It's Saturday, January 4 00:00:09.200 --> 00:00:12.160 17, 2026, and we've got an 5 00:00:12.160 --> 00:00:14.320 absolutely packed episode for you today. 6 00:00:14.640 --> 00:00:17.160 Anna: We really do. And we're leading with some 7 00:00:17.160 --> 00:00:20.000 bittersweet news from Mars. NASA's making 8 00:00:20.000 --> 00:00:22.720 what might be their final attempt to contact 9 00:00:22.720 --> 00:00:25.640 the Maven Orbiter, which has been silent for 10 00:00:25.640 --> 00:00:28.560 over a month now. It's looking increasingly 11 00:00:28.560 --> 00:00:30.680 unlikely that they'll be able to recover the 12 00:00:30.680 --> 00:00:31.360 spacecra. 13 00:00:31.980 --> 00:00:34.180 Avery: That's tough news, but we've also got some 14 00:00:34.180 --> 00:00:36.300 incredible human achievements to celebrate. 15 00:00:36.620 --> 00:00:39.260 The SpaceX crew, 11 astronauts have 16 00:00:39.260 --> 00:00:41.260 safely returned to Houston following the 17 00:00:41.260 --> 00:00:43.700 first ever medical evacuation from the 18 00:00:43.700 --> 00:00:45.940 International Space Station. We'll get into 19 00:00:45.940 --> 00:00:47.940 the details of how that historic operation 20 00:00:47.940 --> 00:00:48.620 unfolded. 21 00:00:48.860 --> 00:00:51.260 Anna: Europe's stepping up its launch game too. 22 00:00:51.500 --> 00:00:53.540 Arianespace has announced they'll be 23 00:00:53.540 --> 00:00:56.540 launching the first Ariane 6.4 Rocket on 24 00:00:56.540 --> 00:00:59.420 February 12th. That's the more powerful 4 25 00:00:59.420 --> 00:01:01.820 booster version. This is a big deal for 26 00:01:01.820 --> 00:01:03.340 European space capabilities. 27 00:01:04.040 --> 00:01:06.000 Avery: We're also diving into some fascinating 28 00:01:06.000 --> 00:01:08.200 research today. Scientists have been using 29 00:01:08.200 --> 00:01:10.880 CERN's particle accelerators to simulate 30 00:01:10.880 --> 00:01:13.280 asteroid impacts. And what they discovered 31 00:01:13.280 --> 00:01:15.760 about iron rich space rocks could change how 32 00:01:15.760 --> 00:01:17.480 we approach planetary defense. 33 00:01:17.960 --> 00:01:20.079 Anna: Then we've got something that sounds like 34 00:01:20.079 --> 00:01:23.040 science fiction, but is very real. China has 35 00:01:23.040 --> 00:01:25.800 released the world's first practical software 36 00:01:25.800 --> 00:01:28.440 for keeping time on the Moon. Yes, 37 00:01:28.440 --> 00:01:31.440 lunar timekeeping is now a thing and it's 38 00:01:31.440 --> 00:01:32.840 more important than you might think. 39 00:01:33.240 --> 00:01:35.200 Avery: And we'll wrap up with some stunning new 40 00:01:35.200 --> 00:01:38.060 images from from Hubble. Even after 35 years 41 00:01:38.060 --> 00:01:40.580 in orbit, it's still showing us where planets 42 00:01:40.580 --> 00:01:43.460 are born in protoplanetary disks around young 43 00:01:43.460 --> 00:01:44.020 stars. 44 00:01:44.340 --> 00:01:46.260 Anna: Lots to cover. So let's get started. 45 00:01:46.660 --> 00:01:48.660 Avery: Let's start with that Mars story. Anna. 46 00:01:48.740 --> 00:01:51.140 NASA's Maven orbiter has been one of our most 47 00:01:51.140 --> 00:01:53.940 valuable assets at Mars for over a decade. 48 00:01:54.260 --> 00:01:56.020 What's the latest on the recovery efforts? 49 00:01:56.500 --> 00:01:58.660 Anna: Well, it's not looking good, I'm afraid. 50 00:01:58.980 --> 00:02:01.580 Maven, that's the Mars Atmosphere and 51 00:02:01.580 --> 00:02:04.500 Volatile Evolution Orbiter went silent on 52 00:02:04.500 --> 00:02:07.460 December 6, 2025, and NASA has 53 00:02:07.840 --> 00:02:10.400 unable to re establish contact ever since. 54 00:02:10.800 --> 00:02:13.160 The spacecraft has been orbiting Mars since 55 00:02:13.160 --> 00:02:15.920 2014, providing invaluable data 56 00:02:15.920 --> 00:02:18.920 about the Martian atmosphere and serving as a 57 00:02:18.920 --> 00:02:21.040 critical communications relay for the 58 00:02:21.040 --> 00:02:23.200 Curiosity and Perseverance rovers. 59 00:02:23.760 --> 00:02:25.960 Avery: So what exactly happened? I mean, 60 00:02:25.960 --> 00:02:28.320 communications blackouts aren't completely 61 00:02:28.320 --> 00:02:29.920 unusual for Mars missions, right? 62 00:02:30.160 --> 00:02:32.400 Anna: You're right, they're not. In this case, 63 00:02:32.400 --> 00:02:34.680 Maven passed behind Mars, which 64 00:02:34.680 --> 00:02:37.450 temporarily blocks communication. That's a 65 00:02:37.450 --> 00:02:39.570 routine occurrence. But when it should have 66 00:02:39.570 --> 00:02:42.450 emerged on the other side, NASA's Deep Space 67 00:02:42.530 --> 00:02:45.450 Network couldn't regain contact. What makes 68 00:02:45.450 --> 00:02:48.170 it worse is that this happened right before a 69 00:02:48.170 --> 00:02:49.330 solar conjunction. 70 00:02:49.650 --> 00:02:51.970 Avery: That's when the sun sits directly between 71 00:02:51.970 --> 00:02:53.330 Earth and Mars, correct? 72 00:02:53.570 --> 00:02:56.250 Anna: Exactly. During solar conjunction, which 73 00:02:56.250 --> 00:02:59.050 occurs roughly every two years, solar 74 00:02:59.050 --> 00:03:01.490 particles interfere with radio signals. 75 00:03:01.730 --> 00:03:03.730 NASA, uh, temporarily halts all 76 00:03:03.730 --> 00:03:05.890 communications with Mars missions during this 77 00:03:05.890 --> 00:03:08.610 period to avoid sending corrupted commands 78 00:03:08.910 --> 00:03:10.990 or receiving incomplete data that could 79 00:03:10.990 --> 00:03:13.590 damage spacecraft. Though the conjunction 80 00:03:13.590 --> 00:03:16.190 basically meant NASA had to wait before they 81 00:03:16.190 --> 00:03:18.030 could even try to recover Maven. 82 00:03:18.430 --> 00:03:20.750 Avery: And, um, that conjunction period just ended. 83 00:03:21.070 --> 00:03:23.510 Anna: Right? NASA said they wouldn't have contact 84 00:03:23.510 --> 00:03:26.190 with any Mars missions until Friday, January 85 00:03:26.350 --> 00:03:29.190 16th. So as of today, they're making 86 00:03:29.190 --> 00:03:32.190 renewed attempts to contact Maven. But here's 87 00:03:32.190 --> 00:03:34.790 the concerning part. Louise Proctor, the 88 00:03:34.790 --> 00:03:37.030 director of NASA's Planetary Science 89 00:03:37.030 --> 00:03:39.910 Division, said on January 13, and 90 00:03:39.910 --> 00:03:42.740 I quote, we'll start looking again, but 91 00:03:42.740 --> 00:03:44.980 at this point, it's looking very unlikely 92 00:03:44.980 --> 00:03:47.100 that we are going to be able to recover the 93 00:03:47.100 --> 00:03:47.700 spacecraft. 94 00:03:48.180 --> 00:03:51.060 Avery: That's pretty pessimistic language from NASA. 95 00:03:51.140 --> 00:03:53.180 Do we know what might have caused the initial 96 00:03:53.180 --> 00:03:53.700 failure? 97 00:03:54.020 --> 00:03:56.340 Anna: The leading theory is that Maven started 98 00:03:56.340 --> 00:03:59.060 rotating unexpectedly after passing behind 99 00:03:59.140 --> 00:04:01.900 Mars. This would have shifted the spacecraft 100 00:04:01.900 --> 00:04:04.660 out of its planned orbit and potentially 101 00:04:04.660 --> 00:04:07.250 moved its antenna away from Earth. But 102 00:04:07.250 --> 00:04:09.930 here's where it gets more complicated. Maven 103 00:04:10.010 --> 00:04:12.810 has had aging hardware issues for years now. 104 00:04:13.210 --> 00:04:14.730 Avery: What kind of issues are we talking about? 105 00:04:15.050 --> 00:04:17.210 Anna: The spacecraft has had problems with its 106 00:04:17.210 --> 00:04:19.650 onboard inertial measurement units, or 107 00:04:19.650 --> 00:04:22.010 IMUs, which are essential for 108 00:04:22.010 --> 00:04:24.290 orientation in space. Back in 109 00:04:24.290 --> 00:04:27.170 2022, Maven spent about three months 110 00:04:27.170 --> 00:04:29.770 in safe mode. Because of IMU problems, 111 00:04:30.010 --> 00:04:32.370 the mission team had to rely on backup 112 00:04:32.370 --> 00:04:35.050 systems that have experienced accelerated 113 00:04:35.050 --> 00:04:37.330 wear and tear. They even developed an 114 00:04:37.330 --> 00:04:40.290 alternative all stellar navigation mode that 115 00:04:40.290 --> 00:04:43.250 uses stars for orientation instead of relying 116 00:04:43.250 --> 00:04:44.330 on the imus. 117 00:04:44.890 --> 00:04:47.170 Avery: So it sounds like Maven has been living on 118 00:04:47.170 --> 00:04:48.730 borrowed time for a while now. 119 00:04:49.130 --> 00:04:51.730 Anna: In some ways, yes. The spacecraft's 120 00:04:51.730 --> 00:04:54.730 inability to fully recover from those 2022 121 00:04:54.730 --> 00:04:57.570 outages led to missed observations of 122 00:04:57.570 --> 00:05:00.330 significant solar flares and disrupted its 123 00:05:00.330 --> 00:05:02.910 communications relay role. That said, 124 00:05:03.150 --> 00:05:05.670 Maven still has enough fuel to remain in 125 00:05:05.670 --> 00:05:08.550 orbit until at least 2030. So the 126 00:05:08.550 --> 00:05:11.390 hardware could theoretically keep working if 127 00:05:11.390 --> 00:05:13.070 they can just re establish contact. 128 00:05:13.710 --> 00:05:15.630 Avery: What's the impact going to be if they can't 129 00:05:15.630 --> 00:05:18.069 recover it? I imagine the rovers depend on 130 00:05:18.069 --> 00:05:19.550 these orbiters for communications. 131 00:05:20.110 --> 00:05:22.710 Anna: That's a great point. Maven has been, uh, a 132 00:05:22.710 --> 00:05:25.190 key communications relay for the Curiosity 133 00:05:25.190 --> 00:05:27.630 and Perseverance rovers. With Maven 134 00:05:27.630 --> 00:05:30.470 offline, NASA has had to shift more of that 135 00:05:30.470 --> 00:05:33.270 burden to other orbiters, specifically Mars 136 00:05:33.270 --> 00:05:36.010 Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Odyssey. 137 00:05:36.250 --> 00:05:38.330 This puts increased pressure on those 138 00:05:38.330 --> 00:05:41.050 Spacecraft to maintain communications and 139 00:05:41.050 --> 00:05:42.410 support surface science. 140 00:05:42.410 --> 00:05:44.930 Avery: Activities and scientifically, what are we 141 00:05:44.930 --> 00:05:45.290 losing? 142 00:05:45.690 --> 00:05:48.210 Anna: Maven's scientific contributions have been 143 00:05:48.210 --> 00:05:50.890 enormous. It's helped us understand how 144 00:05:50.890 --> 00:05:53.890 Mars lost its once thick atmosphere and 145 00:05:53.890 --> 00:05:56.490 became the cold dry world it is today. 146 00:05:56.890 --> 00:05:59.050 The data it collected on Martian weather 147 00:05:59.050 --> 00:06:01.530 patterns, dust storms and auroras 148 00:06:01.610 --> 00:06:03.970 provided insights into the planet's climate 149 00:06:03.970 --> 00:06:06.710 system and potential habitability. Without 150 00:06:06.710 --> 00:06:09.190 Maven, we'd have critical gaps in our 151 00:06:09.190 --> 00:06:11.510 ongoing atmospheric studies of Mars. 152 00:06:11.990 --> 00:06:13.990 Avery: So fingers crossed that these new contact 153 00:06:13.990 --> 00:06:16.070 attempts work out. When um, will we know 154 00:06:16.070 --> 00:06:16.390 more? 155 00:06:16.710 --> 00:06:18.910 Anna: NASA should have results from their latest 156 00:06:18.910 --> 00:06:21.230 attempts very soon, but given the 157 00:06:21.230 --> 00:06:23.790 pessimistic tone from their leadership, I 158 00:06:23.790 --> 00:06:25.750 think we need to prepare for the possibility 159 00:06:25.830 --> 00:06:28.710 that Maven's remarkable decade long mission 160 00:06:28.870 --> 00:06:31.630 may have come to an end. It would be a sad 161 00:06:31.630 --> 00:06:34.310 conclusion to such a successful spacecraft, 162 00:06:34.630 --> 00:06:37.070 but it's given us more than 10 years of 163 00:06:37.070 --> 00:06:38.310 groundbreaking science. 164 00:06:38.870 --> 00:06:40.950 Avery: Absolutely. And that's well beyond its 165 00:06:40.950 --> 00:06:42.310 original design life, right? 166 00:06:42.630 --> 00:06:45.470 Anna: Oh, definitely. Like so many NASA 167 00:06:45.470 --> 00:06:47.990 missions, it far exceeded expectations. 168 00:06:48.390 --> 00:06:50.710 Let's hope there's one more surprise left in 169 00:06:50.710 --> 00:06:53.590 it. Here's hoping. Moving from Mars back 170 00:06:53.590 --> 00:06:54.710 to closer to home. 171 00:06:55.030 --> 00:06:57.590 Let's talk about that historic ISS medical 172 00:06:57.590 --> 00:07:00.110 evacuation. Avery, this was really 173 00:07:00.110 --> 00:07:01.110 unprecedented. 174 00:07:01.610 --> 00:07:04.290 Avery: It absolutely was. The four astronauts of 175 00:07:04.290 --> 00:07:07.210 SpaceX's Crew 11 mission are now safely 176 00:07:07.210 --> 00:07:09.610 back in Houston after splashing down off the 177 00:07:09.610 --> 00:07:11.410 coast of Long Beach, California early 178 00:07:11.410 --> 00:07:14.170 Thursday morning. This marked the very first 179 00:07:14.170 --> 00:07:16.090 medical evacuation from the International 180 00:07:16.330 --> 00:07:19.210 Space Station in its more than 25 year 181 00:07:19.210 --> 00:07:19.530 history. 182 00:07:19.930 --> 00:07:21.610 Anna: Who were the crew members involved? 183 00:07:21.930 --> 00:07:24.610 Avery: The crew consisted of NASA astronauts Zena 184 00:07:24.610 --> 00:07:27.570 Cardman and Mike Finke, Kimiya Yui from 185 00:07:27.570 --> 00:07:30.490 Japan's Aerospace Agency, and cosmonaut 186 00:07:30.490 --> 00:07:33.050 Oleg Platanov from Roscosmos. 187 00:07:33.500 --> 00:07:35.540 They launched back in early August for what 188 00:07:35.540 --> 00:07:37.900 was supposed to be a standard six month stay 189 00:07:37.900 --> 00:07:38.780 aboard the station. 190 00:07:39.260 --> 00:07:41.660 Anna: So they came home about five weeks early, 191 00:07:41.660 --> 00:07:42.220 correct? 192 00:07:42.460 --> 00:07:44.540 Avery: That's right. One of the four crew members 193 00:07:44.620 --> 00:07:46.860 experienced a medical issue in orbit last 194 00:07:46.860 --> 00:07:49.500 week and NASA made the decision to bring the 195 00:07:49.500 --> 00:07:51.820 entire crew home ahead of schedule. 196 00:07:52.220 --> 00:07:54.540 Now NASA has been very protective of medical 197 00:07:54.540 --> 00:07:57.500 privacy, which is absolutely appropriate. So 198 00:07:57.500 --> 00:07:59.620 they haven't disclosed which crew member had 199 00:07:59.620 --> 00:08:01.500 the issue or what the specific medical 200 00:08:01.500 --> 00:08:02.220 problem was. 201 00:08:02.800 --> 00:08:04.720 Anna: What do we know about how they're doing now? 202 00:08:04.800 --> 00:08:07.400 Avery: According to NASA's latest update from Friday 203 00:08:07.400 --> 00:08:10.160 afternoon, all four crew members are stable 204 00:08:10.240 --> 00:08:12.400 and undergoing standard post flight 205 00:08:12.400 --> 00:08:14.880 reconditioning and evaluations at uh, Johnson 206 00:08:14.880 --> 00:08:17.080 Space Center. After splashing down, they 207 00:08:17.080 --> 00:08:18.920 spent about a day and night at a local 208 00:08:18.920 --> 00:08:21.360 medical facility in California before flying 209 00:08:21.360 --> 00:08:21.920 to Houston. 210 00:08:22.320 --> 00:08:24.520 Anna: I have to say the fact that they described 211 00:08:24.520 --> 00:08:26.800 them as stable and that they're doing 212 00:08:26.800 --> 00:08:28.960 Standard post flight evaluations 213 00:08:29.200 --> 00:08:31.720 suggests this wasn't a dire emergency 214 00:08:31.720 --> 00:08:32.240 situation. 215 00:08:32.980 --> 00:08:35.140 Avery: That's my read on it too. And NASA officials 216 00:08:35.140 --> 00:08:37.380 have been pretty clear about describing this 217 00:08:37.380 --> 00:08:40.020 as a deliberate, carefully planned operation 218 00:08:40.420 --> 00:08:43.260 rather than a panic situation. In fact, one 219 00:08:43.260 --> 00:08:45.150 NASA representative said, and um, I'm, um, 220 00:08:45.220 --> 00:08:47.580 paraphrasing here. This is NASA at its 221 00:08:47.580 --> 00:08:49.980 finest, referring to how smoothly the 222 00:08:49.980 --> 00:08:51.860 evacuation and splashdown went. 223 00:08:52.100 --> 00:08:53.740 Anna: Can you walk us through what a medical 224 00:08:53.740 --> 00:08:56.340 evacuation from the ISS actually involves? 225 00:08:56.660 --> 00:08:58.580 This seems incredibly complex. 226 00:08:59.130 --> 00:09:01.730 Avery: It is. First, you have to understand that the 227 00:09:01.730 --> 00:09:04.250 ISS has medical capabilities on board. 228 00:09:04.490 --> 00:09:07.090 There's medical equipment supplies, and the 229 00:09:07.090 --> 00:09:09.090 crew receives training to handle various 230 00:09:09.090 --> 00:09:11.450 medical situations. They can consult with 231 00:09:11.450 --> 00:09:13.610 flight surgeons on the ground in real time. 232 00:09:13.850 --> 00:09:16.490 But sometimes ground based medical care is 233 00:09:16.490 --> 00:09:18.970 simply necessary, either for more advanced 234 00:09:18.970 --> 00:09:21.370 diagnostic equipment or for treatment options 235 00:09:21.370 --> 00:09:22.890 that aren't available in orbit. 236 00:09:23.210 --> 00:09:25.450 Anna: So, uh, the decision to bring someone home is 237 00:09:25.450 --> 00:09:26.490 never made lightly. 238 00:09:26.960 --> 00:09:29.400 Avery: Exactly. In this case, the medical issue 239 00:09:29.400 --> 00:09:32.000 required evaluation and potential treatment 240 00:09:32.000 --> 00:09:34.160 that couldn't be done on the station. Once 241 00:09:34.160 --> 00:09:36.280 that call was made, they had to prepare the 242 00:09:36.280 --> 00:09:38.680 crew Dragon spacecraft, the same one they 243 00:09:38.680 --> 00:09:41.000 arrived in, named Endeavour, for an early 244 00:09:41.000 --> 00:09:43.280 departure. This involves checking all 245 00:09:43.280 --> 00:09:46.080 systems, planning the undocking and reentry 246 00:09:46.080 --> 00:09:48.680 trajectory, coordinating with recovery teams, 247 00:09:48.680 --> 00:09:50.640 and making sure weather conditions would be 248 00:09:50.640 --> 00:09:51.840 suitable for splashdown. 249 00:09:52.080 --> 00:09:55.000 Anna: And they successfully executed all of that in 250 00:09:55.000 --> 00:09:55.920 just a few days. 251 00:09:56.460 --> 00:09:59.180 Avery: They did. The crew undocked from the ISS on 252 00:09:59.180 --> 00:10:01.940 January 14, completed their deorbit 253 00:10:01.940 --> 00:10:04.180 burn and splashed down safely early on 254 00:10:04.180 --> 00:10:07.100 January 15th. Recovery teams were standing by 255 00:10:07.100 --> 00:10:09.340 and quickly retrieved the capsule and crew. 256 00:10:09.580 --> 00:10:12.140 The whole operation went remarkably smoothly. 257 00:10:12.380 --> 00:10:14.980 Anna: What about the ISS itself? How is it 258 00:10:14.980 --> 00:10:16.540 operating with a reduced crew? 259 00:10:16.860 --> 00:10:18.820 Avery: That's a great question. Right now the 260 00:10:18.820 --> 00:10:20.420 station is operating with what they're 261 00:10:20.420 --> 00:10:22.940 calling a skeleton crew of just three people. 262 00:10:23.570 --> 00:10:25.730 NASA astronaut Chris Williams and two 263 00:10:25.730 --> 00:10:28.410 Roscosmos cosmonauts Sergei Kuts 264 00:10:28.410 --> 00:10:31.370 Vertskov and Sergei Mikayev. That's less 265 00:10:31.370 --> 00:10:33.730 than half the normal complement of seven crew 266 00:10:33.730 --> 00:10:34.050 members. 267 00:10:34.370 --> 00:10:36.770 Anna: Can three people effectively run the iss? 268 00:10:37.410 --> 00:10:39.450 Avery: They can maintain it and keep critical 269 00:10:39.450 --> 00:10:41.730 systems running, but it definitely limits 270 00:10:41.730 --> 00:10:44.170 what science can be done. The station won't 271 00:10:44.170 --> 00:10:46.690 return to its full operational capacity until 272 00:10:46.690 --> 00:10:49.600 SpaceX's Crew 12 mission arrives. That's 273 00:10:49.600 --> 00:10:51.960 currently scheduled for February 15, though 274 00:10:51.960 --> 00:10:54.120 NASA and SpaceX are looking at whether they 275 00:10:54.120 --> 00:10:55.920 can move that timeline up a bit. 276 00:10:56.160 --> 00:10:59.000 Anna: I imagine this whole situation must have been 277 00:10:59.000 --> 00:11:00.960 quite stressful for everyone involved. 278 00:11:01.520 --> 00:11:04.360 Avery: No doubt, but what strikes me is how calmly 279 00:11:04.360 --> 00:11:06.800 and professionally it was handled. In one of 280 00:11:06.800 --> 00:11:09.160 the final communications before undocking, 281 00:11:09.160 --> 00:11:11.680 Crew 11 Commander Mike Finke said it was 282 00:11:11.680 --> 00:11:14.120 bittersweet to be leaving early. He handed 283 00:11:14.120 --> 00:11:16.680 over command of the ISS to Chris Williams, 284 00:11:16.680 --> 00:11:18.840 and you could hear in his voice that he would 285 00:11:18.840 --> 00:11:20.440 have preferred to complete the flight full 286 00:11:20.440 --> 00:11:22.840 mission, but he also understood the necessity 287 00:11:22.840 --> 00:11:23.600 of coming home. 288 00:11:23.840 --> 00:11:26.240 Anna: It really speaks to the incredible planning 289 00:11:26.240 --> 00:11:28.000 and preparation that goes into human 290 00:11:28.000 --> 00:11:30.640 spaceflight. Even in an off nominal 291 00:11:30.640 --> 00:11:32.840 situation like this. The systems and 292 00:11:32.840 --> 00:11:35.280 procedures worked exactly as designed. 293 00:11:35.520 --> 00:11:37.680 Avery: And I think it's worth noting that this won't 294 00:11:37.680 --> 00:11:40.000 affect other upcoming missions. NASA 295 00:11:40.000 --> 00:11:42.400 Administrator Jared Isaacman specifically 296 00:11:42.400 --> 00:11:45.000 stated that this ISS evacuation shouldn't 297 00:11:45.000 --> 00:11:47.320 interfere with the upcoming Artemis 2 moon 298 00:11:47.320 --> 00:11:49.360 mission, which is still on track for a 299 00:11:49.360 --> 00:11:51.720 possible launch as early as February 6th. 300 00:11:51.880 --> 00:11:54.720 Anna: That's good to hear. Well, here's hoping for 301 00:11:54.720 --> 00:11:57.080 a full recovery for whichever crew member 302 00:11:57.080 --> 00:11:59.800 needed the medical attention. And kudos to 303 00:11:59.800 --> 00:12:02.640 everyone involved in executing such a complex 304 00:12:02.640 --> 00:12:04.440 operation so flawlessly. 305 00:12:05.000 --> 00:12:07.560 Avery: Agreed. It really was NASA at its 306 00:12:07.560 --> 00:12:08.040 finest. 307 00:12:08.440 --> 00:12:11.400 Anna: Switching gears now to European spaceflight. 308 00:12:11.560 --> 00:12:14.120 Avery. Europe is about to debut a 309 00:12:14.120 --> 00:12:16.680 significantly more powerful version of its 310 00:12:16.680 --> 00:12:17.560 new rocket, right? 311 00:12:18.080 --> 00:12:20.360 Avery: That's right, Anna. Arianespace has announced 312 00:12:20.360 --> 00:12:23.320 that the first flight of the Ariane 64 will 313 00:12:23.320 --> 00:12:25.920 launch on February 12 from the Guyana Space 314 00:12:25.920 --> 00:12:28.280 center in French Guiana. This is the four 315 00:12:28.280 --> 00:12:30.920 booster configuration of the Ariane 6, and it 316 00:12:30.920 --> 00:12:33.599 represents a major step up in capability for 317 00:12:33.599 --> 00:12:34.720 European launch services. 318 00:12:35.280 --> 00:12:37.760 Anna: Let's back up a second for anyone who might 319 00:12:37.760 --> 00:12:40.520 not be familiar with the Ariane 6. Can you 320 00:12:40.520 --> 00:12:41.440 give us the background? 321 00:12:41.840 --> 00:12:44.640 Avery: Sure. Huh? The Ariane 6 is Europe's newest 322 00:12:44.640 --> 00:12:46.720 heavy lift rocket, designed to replace the 323 00:12:46.720 --> 00:12:48.960 Ariane 5, which served for nearly three 324 00:12:48.960 --> 00:12:51.580 decades. The inaugural flight was back in 325 00:12:51.580 --> 00:12:54.540 July 2024. And throughout 2025, 326 00:12:54.860 --> 00:12:57.620 Arianespace flew four more missions, all 327 00:12:57.620 --> 00:13:00.540 carrying payloads for organizations like ESA, 328 00:13:00.780 --> 00:13:03.380 Umetsat and Sinas. The French Space 329 00:13:03.380 --> 00:13:03.980 Agency. 330 00:13:04.300 --> 00:13:06.980 Anna: And all of those flights used the Ariane 331 00:13:06.980 --> 00:13:08.460 62 configuration? 332 00:13:09.020 --> 00:13:11.860 Avery: Exactly. The Ariane 62 uses 333 00:13:11.860 --> 00:13:14.620 two P120C solid fuel boosters 334 00:13:14.620 --> 00:13:16.500 strapped to the side of the rocket's core 335 00:13:16.500 --> 00:13:18.940 stage. Each of those boosters produces 336 00:13:18.940 --> 00:13:21.500 roughly 4,500 kilonewtons of thrust. 337 00:13:21.820 --> 00:13:23.580 It's been doing great for medium lift 338 00:13:23.580 --> 00:13:25.780 missions with a capacity to deliver about 339 00:13:25.780 --> 00:13:28.140 10.3 tons to low Earth orbit. 340 00:13:28.460 --> 00:13:31.300 Anna: So the Ariane 64 just adds two 341 00:13:31.300 --> 00:13:32.860 more boosters, right? 342 00:13:33.019 --> 00:13:35.900 Avery: It uses four of those P120C boosters 343 00:13:35.900 --> 00:13:38.220 instead of two. And that makes a dramatic 344 00:13:38.220 --> 00:13:41.100 difference in capability. The Ariane 64 345 00:13:41.180 --> 00:13:44.180 can deliver up to 21.6 tons to 346 00:13:44.180 --> 00:13:46.280 low Earth orbit, more than double what the 347 00:13:46.280 --> 00:13:49.280 Ariane 62 can handle. That puts it in the 348 00:13:49.280 --> 00:13:51.480 heavy lift category, competing with rockets 349 00:13:51.480 --> 00:13:53.280 like SpaceX's Falcon Heavy. 350 00:13:53.520 --> 00:13:56.440 Anna: That's a significant jump. What's driving the 351 00:13:56.440 --> 00:13:58.320 need for this more powerful version. 352 00:13:58.720 --> 00:14:01.000 Avery: Well, this first mission actually gives us a 353 00:14:01.000 --> 00:14:03.880 perfect example. The Ariane 6 4's first 354 00:14:03.880 --> 00:14:05.800 flight will be launching satellites for 355 00:14:05.800 --> 00:14:08.320 Amazon's Project Cooper Broadband Internet 356 00:14:08.320 --> 00:14:10.880 Constellation. Arianespace has an 18 357 00:14:10.880 --> 00:14:13.360 flight contract with Amazon, and this first 358 00:14:13.360 --> 00:14:16.160 mission, designated LE01, which 359 00:14:16.160 --> 00:14:18.820 stands LEO Europe 01, will 360 00:14:18.820 --> 00:14:21.100 deploy 32 Cooper satellites. 361 00:14:21.260 --> 00:14:23.740 Anna: Amazon's competing with SpaceX's 362 00:14:23.740 --> 00:14:24.700 Starlink, right? 363 00:14:24.940 --> 00:14:27.300 Avery: That's right. Amazon already has about 364 00:14:27.300 --> 00:14:29.820 180 satellites in orbit, and they're 365 00:14:29.820 --> 00:14:31.660 rapidly building out the Constellation. 366 00:14:31.980 --> 00:14:34.460 Having access to the more powerful Ariane 367 00:14:34.460 --> 00:14:37.060 64 means they can launch more satellites at 368 00:14:37.060 --> 00:14:39.460 once, which speeds up the deployment schedule 369 00:14:39.460 --> 00:14:41.460 and reduces the total number of launches 370 00:14:41.460 --> 00:14:41.900 needed. 371 00:14:42.220 --> 00:14:44.460 Anna: Is there anything else notable about this 372 00:14:44.460 --> 00:14:45.420 particular flight? 373 00:14:45.880 --> 00:14:48.480 Avery: Yes, actually. This will be the first Ariane 374 00:14:48.480 --> 00:14:51.440 6 mission to use the rocket's larger 20 meter 375 00:14:51.440 --> 00:14:54.160 long fairing. All previous flights used a 376 00:14:54.160 --> 00:14:57.160 shorter 14 meter fairing. The longer fairing 377 00:14:57.160 --> 00:14:59.800 provides more volume for larger payloads, or 378 00:14:59.800 --> 00:15:02.120 in this case, for fitting more satellites 379 00:15:02.120 --> 00:15:03.320 into the payload stack. 380 00:15:03.720 --> 00:15:05.320 Anna: How long will the mission last? 381 00:15:05.720 --> 00:15:08.040 Avery: Ariane Stace hasn't published a complete 382 00:15:08.040 --> 00:15:10.120 mission breakdown yet, but they've stated the 383 00:15:10.120 --> 00:15:12.640 entire flight will last one hour and 54 384 00:15:12.640 --> 00:15:15.390 minutes. That presumably includes deploying 385 00:15:15.390 --> 00:15:18.230 all 32 satellites and then deorbiting the 386 00:15:18.230 --> 00:15:20.470 rocket's upper stage in a controlled manner, 387 00:15:20.470 --> 00:15:22.710 which is important for reducing space debris. 388 00:15:22.950 --> 00:15:25.390 Anna: What does this mean for Arianespace's launch 389 00:15:25.390 --> 00:15:26.550 cadence going forward? 390 00:15:27.110 --> 00:15:29.950 Avery: They're being pretty ambitious. Arianespace 391 00:15:29.950 --> 00:15:32.350 is aiming to double the number of Ariane 6 392 00:15:32.350 --> 00:15:34.950 launches this year compared to 2025. 393 00:15:35.350 --> 00:15:37.750 That would mean as many as eight Ariane 6 394 00:15:37.750 --> 00:15:40.440 flights over the next 12 months. Given that 395 00:15:40.440 --> 00:15:42.560 they're still ramping up operations with what 396 00:15:42.560 --> 00:15:45.080 is still a fairly new rocket, that's a 397 00:15:45.080 --> 00:15:46.840 challenging goal, but it shows their 398 00:15:46.840 --> 00:15:47.280 confidence. 399 00:15:47.680 --> 00:15:49.760 Anna: Are there any other upgrades in the works? 400 00:15:50.240 --> 00:15:53.200 Avery: Actually, yes. The company is developing an 401 00:15:53.200 --> 00:15:55.679 upgraded version of the solid fuel booster 402 00:15:55.679 --> 00:15:58.640 called the P160C. It carries 403 00:15:58.640 --> 00:16:01.600 an additional 14 tons of solid propellant 404 00:16:01.600 --> 00:16:04.000 compared to the current P120C. 405 00:16:04.480 --> 00:16:06.720 That upgrade has already been fully qualified 406 00:16:06.720 --> 00:16:09.600 for use on Both the Ariane 62 for medium 407 00:16:09.600 --> 00:16:12.460 lift missions, the Ariane 644 for heavy 408 00:16:12.460 --> 00:16:15.300 lift, the Vega C for smaller payloads and 409 00:16:15.300 --> 00:16:17.860 these future upgrades. Europe is positioning 410 00:16:17.860 --> 00:16:19.780 itself to be very competitive in the 411 00:16:19.780 --> 00:16:22.220 commercial launch market. And that's crucial, 412 00:16:22.300 --> 00:16:24.740 especially as we see increasing competition 413 00:16:24.740 --> 00:16:27.619 from SpaceX, China and other emerging launch 414 00:16:27.619 --> 00:16:28.220 providers. 415 00:16:28.540 --> 00:16:31.220 Anna: Will the, uh, February 12 launch be publicly 416 00:16:31.220 --> 00:16:31.660 viewable? 417 00:16:31.900 --> 00:16:34.500 Avery: Arianespace typically provides live coverage 418 00:16:34.500 --> 00:16:36.540 of their launches, so I'd expect we'll be 419 00:16:36.540 --> 00:16:38.700 able to watch this historic first flight of 420 00:16:38.700 --> 00:16:41.360 the Ariane 6 4. It should be quite a 421 00:16:41.360 --> 00:16:43.720 sight. Those four boosters firing together 422 00:16:43.720 --> 00:16:45.720 should make for an impressive liftoff. 423 00:16:45.880 --> 00:16:48.320 Anna: I'll definitely be watching. It's great to 424 00:16:48.320 --> 00:16:50.680 see Europe maintaining and expanding its 425 00:16:50.680 --> 00:16:52.200 independent access to space. 426 00:16:52.680 --> 00:16:52.950 Avery: Anna. 427 00:16:52.950 --> 00:16:55.080 Uh, let's talk about planetary defense. 428 00:16:55.320 --> 00:16:56.960 Scientists have been conducting some 429 00:16:56.960 --> 00:16:59.160 fascinating experiments using particle 430 00:16:59.160 --> 00:17:01.560 accelerators to understand how asteroids 431 00:17:01.560 --> 00:17:03.640 might respond to deflection attempts. 432 00:17:03.880 --> 00:17:06.170 Anna: This is really cool work, Avery. An 433 00:17:06.170 --> 00:17:08.810 international research team used CERN's High 434 00:17:08.810 --> 00:17:11.410 Radiation to Materials facility, that's 435 00:17:11.410 --> 00:17:14.370 HIRADMAT, to simulate what happens when 436 00:17:14.370 --> 00:17:17.010 high energy impacts strike iron rich 437 00:17:17.010 --> 00:17:19.210 asteroids. And what they found could 438 00:17:19.210 --> 00:17:21.050 significantly change our approach to 439 00:17:21.050 --> 00:17:22.130 planetary defense. 440 00:17:22.530 --> 00:17:24.730 Avery: Before we get into the results, can you set 441 00:17:24.730 --> 00:17:26.610 up the context? Uh, why is this research 442 00:17:26.690 --> 00:17:27.090 important? 443 00:17:27.650 --> 00:17:29.570 Anna: Sure. We know There are around 444 00:17:29.650 --> 00:17:32.290 37,000 known near Earth 445 00:17:32.290 --> 00:17:35.090 asteroids and 120 short period 446 00:17:35.090 --> 00:17:37.290 comets whose orbits bring them close to 447 00:17:37.290 --> 00:17:40.110 Earth. While scientists are confident that 448 00:17:40.110 --> 00:17:42.270 none of the known potentially hazardous 449 00:17:42.270 --> 00:17:44.590 objects will strike Earth within the next 450 00:17:44.590 --> 00:17:47.310 century, we know that eventually planetary 451 00:17:47.310 --> 00:17:48.830 defense measures will be needed. 452 00:17:49.150 --> 00:17:51.630 Avery: And NASA's DART mission demonstrated one 453 00:17:51.630 --> 00:17:53.470 approach. The kinetic impactor. 454 00:17:53.790 --> 00:17:56.430 Anna: Exactly. In 2022, Dart 455 00:17:56.430 --> 00:17:58.950 successfully struck the asteroid Dimorphos 456 00:17:58.950 --> 00:18:01.270 and altered its orbit. But to do this 457 00:18:01.270 --> 00:18:03.710 reliably and develop effective defense 458 00:18:03.710 --> 00:18:05.870 strategies, we need to understand how 459 00:18:05.870 --> 00:18:07.950 different types of asteroids respond to 460 00:18:07.950 --> 00:18:10.000 impacts. And that's where this new research 461 00:18:10.080 --> 00:18:10.720 comes in. 462 00:18:11.040 --> 00:18:13.520 Avery: So they focus specifically on iron rich 463 00:18:13.520 --> 00:18:14.080 asteroids. 464 00:18:14.400 --> 00:18:17.080 Anna: Right? What astronomers call M M type 465 00:18:17.080 --> 00:18:19.440 asteroids. These are thought to be exposed 466 00:18:19.440 --> 00:18:22.320 metallic cores of ancient protoplanets 467 00:18:22.320 --> 00:18:24.599 that were shattered in collisions billions of 468 00:18:24.599 --> 00:18:27.280 years ago. They're made primarily of iron and 469 00:18:27.280 --> 00:18:29.840 nickel, unlike the more common rocky 470 00:18:29.840 --> 00:18:31.600 asteroids or icy comets. 471 00:18:31.920 --> 00:18:34.520 Avery: How did they simulate an asteroid impact? In 472 00:18:34.520 --> 00:18:34.880 the lab? 473 00:18:35.450 --> 00:18:37.530 Anna: This is where it gets really clever. They 474 00:18:37.530 --> 00:18:40.330 used a sample of the Campo del CIO iron 475 00:18:40.330 --> 00:18:42.570 meteorite, which is a well studied iron 476 00:18:42.570 --> 00:18:45.170 meteorite from Argentina. They subjected it 477 00:18:45.170 --> 00:18:47.566 to extremely energetic 440 478 00:18:47.734 --> 00:18:50.306 GeV proton beams at CERN's 479 00:18:50.407 --> 00:18:53.170 high RadMat facility. At CERN, that's an 480 00:18:53.170 --> 00:18:54.650 incredibly high energy level. 481 00:18:55.050 --> 00:18:57.210 Avery: And how did they measure what happened to the 482 00:18:57.210 --> 00:18:57.610 sample? 483 00:18:57.850 --> 00:18:59.930 Anna: They used a technique, uh, called Doppler 484 00:18:59.930 --> 00:19:02.810 vibrometry, which can detect tiny surface 485 00:19:02.810 --> 00:19:05.430 vibrations. This allowed them to capture real 486 00:19:05.430 --> 00:19:08.150 time data on how the material responded to 487 00:19:08.150 --> 00:19:10.750 rapidly increasing stress, all without 488 00:19:10.750 --> 00:19:13.350 destroying the sample. They could see exactly 489 00:19:13.350 --> 00:19:15.790 how iron behaved under extreme conditions. 490 00:19:16.190 --> 00:19:17.230 Avery: What did they discover? 491 00:19:17.630 --> 00:19:19.990 Anna: This is where it gets really interesting. The 492 00:19:19.990 --> 00:19:22.350 results showed that M M type asteroids can 493 00:19:22.350 --> 00:19:24.830 absorb significantly more energy without 494 00:19:24.910 --> 00:19:27.070 fragmenting than conventional models 495 00:19:27.070 --> 00:19:29.630 predicted. But even more surprisingly, the 496 00:19:29.630 --> 00:19:31.910 meteorite actually got tougher as it was 497 00:19:31.910 --> 00:19:33.710 subjected to increasing stress. 498 00:19:34.350 --> 00:19:36.430 Avery: Wait, it got stronger under stress? 499 00:19:36.990 --> 00:19:39.790 Anna: Yes. The researchers found that the iron 500 00:19:39.790 --> 00:19:42.230 dissipated more energy as stress 501 00:19:42.230 --> 00:19:44.830 increased, suggesting that the internal 502 00:19:44.830 --> 00:19:47.670 structure of asteroids can redistribute and 503 00:19:47.670 --> 00:19:50.190 amplify stress in unexpected ways, 504 00:19:50.510 --> 00:19:53.150 Similar to what we see in complex composite 505 00:19:53.150 --> 00:19:53.790 materials. 506 00:19:54.350 --> 00:19:57.070 Avery: That seems counterintuitive. You'd expect 507 00:19:57.150 --> 00:20:00.110 materials to weaken under extreme stress, not 508 00:20:00.110 --> 00:20:00.670 strengthen. 509 00:20:01.240 --> 00:20:03.560 Anna: That's exactly why this is such an important 510 00:20:03.720 --> 00:20:06.080 finding. It contradicts what conventional 511 00:20:06.080 --> 00:20:08.840 models have suggested. One of the study's co 512 00:20:08.840 --> 00:20:11.560 authors, Professor Gianluca Grigori from the 513 00:20:11.560 --> 00:20:14.440 University of Oxford, said this is the first 514 00:20:14.440 --> 00:20:16.760 time they've been able to observe in real 515 00:20:16.840 --> 00:20:19.360 time. How an actual meteorite sample 516 00:20:19.360 --> 00:20:22.120 deforms, strengthens, and adapts under 517 00:20:22.120 --> 00:20:24.920 extreme conditions without destroying it. 518 00:20:25.240 --> 00:20:27.440 Avery: So what does this mean for planetary defense 519 00:20:27.440 --> 00:20:27.960 strategies? 520 00:20:28.500 --> 00:20:31.140 Anna: A couple of things. First, it means that iron 521 00:20:31.140 --> 00:20:33.700 rich asteroids might be harder to deflect 522 00:20:33.700 --> 00:20:36.060 than we thought. Because they can absorb more 523 00:20:36.060 --> 00:20:38.820 energy without breaking apart. But it also 524 00:20:38.820 --> 00:20:41.060 suggests that we could potentially deliver 525 00:20:41.140 --> 00:20:43.940 energy deep inside an asteroid without 526 00:20:44.100 --> 00:20:44.980 fragmenting it. 527 00:20:45.300 --> 00:20:47.220 Avery: That could be useful if you want to push an 528 00:20:47.220 --> 00:20:49.060 asteroid rather than shatter it. 529 00:20:49.300 --> 00:20:52.140 Anna: Exactly. The research also helps explain 530 00:20:52.140 --> 00:20:54.820 a long standing puzzle in planetary defense. 531 00:20:55.340 --> 00:20:57.740 Why there's often a discrepancy between what 532 00:20:57.740 --> 00:21:00.420 we infer from meteorite breakup in Earth's 533 00:21:00.420 --> 00:21:02.660 atmosphere. And actual laboratory 534 00:21:02.660 --> 00:21:05.260 measurements of meteorite strength. This 535 00:21:05.260 --> 00:21:07.260 study shows that internal stress 536 00:21:07.260 --> 00:21:09.860 redistribution. Within the heterogeneous 537 00:21:09.860 --> 00:21:12.460 structure of meteorites can explain that 538 00:21:12.460 --> 00:21:12.940 difference. 539 00:21:13.420 --> 00:21:15.020 Avery: This sounds like it could inform new 540 00:21:15.020 --> 00:21:16.140 deflection methods. 541 00:21:16.460 --> 00:21:18.860 Anna: That's the hope. The data could help develop 542 00:21:19.020 --> 00:21:21.580 redirection techniques. That push asteroids 543 00:21:21.580 --> 00:21:24.260 more effectively while keeping them intact. 544 00:21:24.660 --> 00:21:26.620 After all, the last thing you want when 545 00:21:26.620 --> 00:21:29.060 deflecting an asteroid. Is to break it into 546 00:21:29.060 --> 00:21:31.420 multiple pieces that might still pose a 547 00:21:31.420 --> 00:21:31.700 threat. 548 00:21:32.100 --> 00:21:33.900 Avery: Have they tested this with other types of 549 00:21:33.900 --> 00:21:34.980 asteroid materials? 550 00:21:35.220 --> 00:21:37.580 Anna: This particular study focused on iron 551 00:21:37.580 --> 00:21:39.980 meteorites. But the methodology could be 552 00:21:39.980 --> 00:21:42.700 applied to other types of asteroids. Rocky 553 00:21:42.700 --> 00:21:45.460 asteroids, carbonaceous asteroids, and so on. 554 00:21:45.700 --> 00:21:47.940 Each type would likely behave differently 555 00:21:47.940 --> 00:21:50.800 under extreme stress. And understanding those 556 00:21:50.800 --> 00:21:53.080 differences is crucial for developing a, uh, 557 00:21:53.200 --> 00:21:55.760 comprehensive planetary defense toolkit. 558 00:21:55.920 --> 00:21:58.200 Avery: I think what's particularly valuable here is 559 00:21:58.200 --> 00:22:00.040 that they've developed a technique. That can 560 00:22:00.040 --> 00:22:02.640 test actual meteorite samples non 561 00:22:02.640 --> 00:22:05.080 destructively. That means we can build up a 562 00:22:05.080 --> 00:22:07.360 library of data on how different asteroid 563 00:22:07.360 --> 00:22:09.880 materials behave. Without having to rely 564 00:22:09.880 --> 00:22:12.880 solely on computer simulations or destroying 565 00:22:12.880 --> 00:22:13.920 precious samples. 566 00:22:14.320 --> 00:22:16.880 Anna: And as we continue to study asteroids with 567 00:22:16.880 --> 00:22:18.800 missions like Osiris x and 568 00:22:18.800 --> 00:22:21.620 Hayabusa2, we'll have more samples to 569 00:22:21.620 --> 00:22:21.900 test. 570 00:22:22.220 --> 00:22:24.700 Avery: Exactly. The combination of sample return 571 00:22:24.700 --> 00:22:27.500 missions, laboratory testing like this, and 572 00:22:27.500 --> 00:22:29.780 missions like DART that demonstrate actual 573 00:22:29.780 --> 00:22:32.180 deflection techniques. It's all building 574 00:22:32.180 --> 00:22:34.460 toward a real capability to protect Earth 575 00:22:34.460 --> 00:22:35.740 from asteroid impacts. 576 00:22:35.980 --> 00:22:38.420 Anna: It's reassuring to know that even though we 577 00:22:38.420 --> 00:22:40.860 don't face an immediate threat, we're doing 578 00:22:40.860 --> 00:22:43.220 the groundwork now, so we'll be prepared when 579 00:22:43.220 --> 00:22:43.980 we need to be. 580 00:22:44.220 --> 00:22:46.460 Avery: Absolutely. And this research was just 581 00:22:46.460 --> 00:22:49.070 published in Nature communications, so it's 582 00:22:49.070 --> 00:22:51.030 getting a lot of attention from the planetary 583 00:22:51.030 --> 00:22:51.790 defense community. 584 00:22:52.110 --> 00:22:52.750 Anna: Avery. 585 00:22:52.750 --> 00:22:54.990 Our next story sounds like something out of 586 00:22:54.990 --> 00:22:57.710 science fiction, but it's very much real 587 00:22:57.790 --> 00:23:00.550 and increasingly necessary. China 588 00:23:00.550 --> 00:23:03.030 has released the world's first practical 589 00:23:03.030 --> 00:23:05.310 software for keeping time on the moon. 590 00:23:05.710 --> 00:23:08.630 Avery: Lunar timekeeping software. When you say 591 00:23:08.630 --> 00:23:10.990 it out loud, it really drives home how much 592 00:23:10.990 --> 00:23:13.710 space exploration has advanced. Why do we 593 00:23:13.710 --> 00:23:15.710 need to keep time differently on the moon? 594 00:23:16.150 --> 00:23:18.510 Anna: It all comes down to Einstein's theory of 595 00:23:18.510 --> 00:23:21.240 general relativity. Time doesn't pass at, uh, 596 00:23:21.310 --> 00:23:23.790 the same rate everywhere. It's affected by 597 00:23:23.790 --> 00:23:26.750 both gravity and velocity. The moon's 598 00:23:26.750 --> 00:23:28.990 gravity is weaker than Earth's, which means 599 00:23:28.990 --> 00:23:31.949 time actually passes slightly faster on the 600 00:23:31.949 --> 00:23:33.350 moon than it does on Earth. 601 00:23:33.750 --> 00:23:35.750 Avery: How much faster are we talking about? 602 00:23:35.910 --> 00:23:38.790 Anna: About 5, 6 millionths of a second 603 00:23:38.870 --> 00:23:41.710 per day. Now, that might not sound like much, 604 00:23:41.710 --> 00:23:44.200 but it adds up over time, and it can 605 00:23:44.200 --> 00:23:46.600 seriously disrupt navigation systems, 606 00:23:46.920 --> 00:23:49.200 Especially when you're trying to do precision 607 00:23:49.200 --> 00:23:50.680 work on the lunar surface. 608 00:23:51.080 --> 00:23:53.320 Avery: So this is a precision navigation issue. 609 00:23:53.640 --> 00:23:56.360 Anna: Exactly. Think about gps. On Earth, 610 00:23:56.520 --> 00:23:59.200 the satellites constantly have to correct for 611 00:23:59.200 --> 00:24:01.800 relativistic effects caused by gravity and 612 00:24:01.800 --> 00:24:04.520 motion. Those corrections are, uh, what allow 613 00:24:04.520 --> 00:24:07.240 your phone to pinpoint your location within 614 00:24:07.240 --> 00:24:09.640 just a few meters without accounting for 615 00:24:09.640 --> 00:24:12.440 relativity. GPS would be useless within 616 00:24:12.440 --> 00:24:12.880 minutes. 617 00:24:13.280 --> 00:24:15.320 Avery: And the moon is about to have a similar need 618 00:24:15.320 --> 00:24:16.560 for precision navigation. 619 00:24:16.800 --> 00:24:19.240 Anna: Right. In the past, this wasn't really a 620 00:24:19.240 --> 00:24:21.440 problem because lunar missions were rare, 621 00:24:21.680 --> 00:24:24.520 short, and mostly isolated. Engineers 622 00:24:24.520 --> 00:24:27.080 could just use Earth time and apply mission 623 00:24:27.080 --> 00:24:29.680 specific fixes when needed. But that's 624 00:24:29.680 --> 00:24:31.840 changing rapidly because we're about. 625 00:24:31.840 --> 00:24:34.040 Avery: To have multiple spacecraft and eventually 626 00:24:34.040 --> 00:24:36.400 humans operating on the moon simultaneously. 627 00:24:36.870 --> 00:24:39.790 Anna: Exactly. Under those conditions, relying on 628 00:24:39.790 --> 00:24:42.550 custom fixes for each mission becomes risky 629 00:24:42.550 --> 00:24:44.790 and inefficient. You need a 630 00:24:44.790 --> 00:24:47.270 standardized lunar time reference that 631 00:24:47.270 --> 00:24:48.310 everyone can use. 632 00:24:48.870 --> 00:24:51.030 Avery: So what exactly did the Chinese team create? 633 00:24:51.430 --> 00:24:53.110 Anna: Researchers from the Purple Mountain 634 00:24:53.110 --> 00:24:56.030 Observatory in Nanjing developed detailed 635 00:24:56.030 --> 00:24:58.550 software called LTE 440. 636 00:24:59.270 --> 00:25:01.830 That stands for lunar time ephemeris. 637 00:25:02.320 --> 00:25:04.560 It's based on modern planetary data and 638 00:25:04.560 --> 00:25:07.160 tracks how lunar time drifts relative to 639 00:25:07.160 --> 00:25:09.520 Earth time. The software automates 640 00:25:09.520 --> 00:25:11.920 calculations that once required deep 641 00:25:11.920 --> 00:25:14.520 expertise in relativity and celestial 642 00:25:14.520 --> 00:25:15.120 mechanics. 643 00:25:15.600 --> 00:25:16.800 Avery: How accurate is it? 644 00:25:17.040 --> 00:25:19.760 Anna: Remarkably accurate. The researchers found 645 00:25:19.760 --> 00:25:22.120 their method stays accurate to within a few 646 00:25:22.120 --> 00:25:25.000 tens of nanoseconds, Even when projected over 647 00:25:25.000 --> 00:25:27.440 a thousand years. And to keep daily 648 00:25:27.440 --> 00:25:29.920 differences within about 10 nanoseconds, 649 00:25:30.320 --> 00:25:32.760 the calculations need to be accurate to parts 650 00:25:32.760 --> 00:25:35.600 in 10 trillion. Their tests show 651 00:25:35.600 --> 00:25:38.400 LTE 440 meets that standard. 652 00:25:38.880 --> 00:25:40.800 Avery: Why such extreme precision? 653 00:25:41.040 --> 00:25:43.480 Anna: Well, navigation is one driver, but there's 654 00:25:43.480 --> 00:25:45.959 also science. The Moon offers unique 655 00:25:45.959 --> 00:25:48.480 conditions for astronomy. No atmosphere, 656 00:25:48.480 --> 00:25:51.280 minimal interference. One promising idea 657 00:25:51.280 --> 00:25:54.040 is Earth Moon, very long baseline 658 00:25:54.040 --> 00:25:56.520 interferometry, where you link radio 659 00:25:56.520 --> 00:25:59.040 telescopes on Earth and the Moon to create 660 00:25:59.120 --> 00:26:01.090 sharper images of distant objects. 661 00:26:01.520 --> 00:26:03.800 Avery: Um, and that requires extremely precise 662 00:26:03.800 --> 00:26:04.280 timing. 663 00:26:04.360 --> 00:26:07.280 Anna: Right. Signals recorded on both bodies need 664 00:26:07.280 --> 00:26:09.080 to be timestamped to better than a 665 00:26:09.080 --> 00:26:11.720 microsecond to allow for instrument noise. 666 00:26:11.800 --> 00:26:14.360 The underlying time model needs to be even 667 00:26:14.360 --> 00:26:17.320 more accurate. Hence the extreme precision 668 00:26:17.320 --> 00:26:17.960 requirements. 669 00:26:18.440 --> 00:26:20.520 Avery: How does the software actually work? 670 00:26:20.920 --> 00:26:23.880 Anna: Instead of using long equations, they used a 671 00:26:23.880 --> 00:26:26.480 numerical approach based on a planetary model 672 00:26:26.480 --> 00:26:29.360 called DE440, which tracks 673 00:26:29.360 --> 00:26:31.800 the positions and velocities of solar system 674 00:26:31.800 --> 00:26:34.500 bodies with high precision. From that data, 675 00:26:34.740 --> 00:26:37.580 they computed how time near the Moon differs 676 00:26:37.580 --> 00:26:40.020 from a solar system reference time. The 677 00:26:40.020 --> 00:26:42.340 software stores these results in compact 678 00:26:42.340 --> 00:26:44.660 files that can be quickly interpolated. 679 00:26:45.140 --> 00:26:47.060 Avery: What affects lunar time most? 680 00:26:47.540 --> 00:26:49.860 Anna: The Moon's motion and the Sun's gravity 681 00:26:49.860 --> 00:26:52.660 dominate the effect. But Earth, Jupiter, 682 00:26:52.660 --> 00:26:55.540 and even distant objects in the Kuiper Belt 683 00:26:55.540 --> 00:26:58.340 add smaller effects. There are monthly and 684 00:26:58.340 --> 00:27:00.780 yearly patterns that range from milliseconds 685 00:27:00.780 --> 00:27:02.100 down to microseconds. 686 00:27:02.780 --> 00:27:04.700 Avery: I'm curious about the international response 687 00:27:04.700 --> 00:27:07.060 to this. Is China the only one working on 688 00:27:07.060 --> 00:27:07.340 this? 689 00:27:07.740 --> 00:27:10.380 Anna: That's a great question. Jonathan McDowell, 690 00:27:10.380 --> 00:27:12.980 an astronomer at Harvard, told reporters that 691 00:27:12.980 --> 00:27:15.020 similar efforts are underway in the United 692 00:27:15.100 --> 00:27:17.860 States, but he's not aware of another openly 693 00:27:17.860 --> 00:27:20.740 available tool like this. He emphasized that 694 00:27:20.740 --> 00:27:23.140 this shows China is serious about lunar 695 00:27:23.140 --> 00:27:25.540 exploration and is being quite open about 696 00:27:25.540 --> 00:27:27.260 sharing its lunar related research. 697 00:27:28.070 --> 00:27:29.590 Avery: That's actually encouraging from an 698 00:27:29.590 --> 00:27:31.350 international cooperation standpoint. 699 00:27:31.430 --> 00:27:34.030 Anna: I think so, too. And it's worth noting that 700 00:27:34.030 --> 00:27:36.950 in 2024, the International Astronomical 701 00:27:36.950 --> 00:27:39.470 Union adopted a, uh, framework calling for 702 00:27:39.470 --> 00:27:42.190 the Moon to have its own time reference. So 703 00:27:42.190 --> 00:27:44.150 this software really builds on that 704 00:27:44.150 --> 00:27:45.430 international consensus. 705 00:27:45.990 --> 00:27:48.070 Avery: What are the practical implications for 706 00:27:48.070 --> 00:27:48.590 upcoming. 707 00:27:48.590 --> 00:27:50.950 Anna: Missions as lunar activity 708 00:27:50.950 --> 00:27:53.310 increases? And we're talking about 709 00:27:53.310 --> 00:27:56.070 NASA's Artemis program, China's 710 00:27:56.070 --> 00:27:58.950 own lunar base plans, commercial lunar 711 00:27:58.950 --> 00:28:01.270 landers, and more reliable 712 00:28:01.350 --> 00:28:04.070 timekeeping will support safer landings, 713 00:28:04.390 --> 00:28:07.190 smoother navigation, and better coordination 714 00:28:07.270 --> 00:28:10.150 between missions. Eventually, we'll likely 715 00:28:10.230 --> 00:28:13.030 see lunar GPS style systems 716 00:28:13.110 --> 00:28:15.670 that depend on this kind of precise 717 00:28:15.670 --> 00:28:16.550 timekeeping. 718 00:28:16.790 --> 00:28:18.510 Avery: It really is laying the groundwork for 719 00:28:18.510 --> 00:28:20.550 sustained human presence on the Moon. 720 00:28:20.960 --> 00:28:23.880 Anna: Absolutely. And the Researchers emphasize 721 00:28:23.880 --> 00:28:26.680 that LTE 440 is just an 722 00:28:26.680 --> 00:28:29.480 early step. Future versions will need to 723 00:28:29.480 --> 00:28:32.480 support real time navigation and networks 724 00:28:32.480 --> 00:28:35.400 of lunar clocks. But the release marks 725 00:28:35.400 --> 00:28:37.880 a shift from abstract planning to 726 00:28:37.880 --> 00:28:39.360 practical infrastructure. 727 00:28:39.600 --> 00:28:41.680 Avery: It's one of those things that sounds mundane 728 00:28:41.760 --> 00:28:44.560 time software, but is actually fundamental to 729 00:28:44.560 --> 00:28:46.080 making lunar operations work. 730 00:28:46.710 --> 00:28:49.550 Anna: Exactly. You can have the fanciest rockets 731 00:28:49.550 --> 00:28:51.670 and landers in the world. But if your 732 00:28:51.670 --> 00:28:54.230 spacecraft can't agree on what time it is, 733 00:28:54.310 --> 00:28:56.830 you're going to have problems. This is the 734 00:28:56.830 --> 00:28:59.750 kind of unsexy but essential infrastructure 735 00:28:59.750 --> 00:29:02.070 work that makes the exciting stuff possible. 736 00:29:02.630 --> 00:29:04.910 Avery: For our final story today, let's talk about 737 00:29:04.910 --> 00:29:07.710 the Hubble Space Telescope. After 35 years in 738 00:29:07.710 --> 00:29:09.790 orbit, it's still delivering incredible 739 00:29:09.790 --> 00:29:10.230 science. 740 00:29:10.630 --> 00:29:13.380 Anna: It really is remarkable. NASA just 741 00:29:13.380 --> 00:29:15.980 released a new gallery of Hubble images 742 00:29:16.060 --> 00:29:19.020 showing protoplanetary disks around young 743 00:29:19.020 --> 00:29:21.780 stars, essentially the birthplaces of 744 00:29:21.780 --> 00:29:24.540 planets. And these images beautifully 745 00:29:24.540 --> 00:29:27.100 illustrate one of Hubble's original mission 746 00:29:27.740 --> 00:29:29.740 understanding how planets form. 747 00:29:30.060 --> 00:29:31.700 Avery: Can you walk us through what we're seeing in 748 00:29:31.700 --> 00:29:32.220 these images? 749 00:29:32.700 --> 00:29:35.540 Anna: Sure. When stars form, they're surrounded 750 00:29:35.540 --> 00:29:38.460 by gas and dust left over from the formation 751 00:29:38.460 --> 00:29:41.380 process. In the early stages, this is called 752 00:29:41.380 --> 00:29:44.300 a circumstellar disk. But once planets 753 00:29:44.300 --> 00:29:46.580 start forming in the disk, we call it a 754 00:29:46.580 --> 00:29:49.340 protoplanetary disk. These disks are 755 00:29:49.340 --> 00:29:52.060 where planetary systems like our own solar 756 00:29:52.060 --> 00:29:52.900 system come from. 757 00:29:53.220 --> 00:29:55.379 Avery: What makes these particular images special? 758 00:29:55.700 --> 00:29:58.020 Anna: Hubble captured them using two different 759 00:29:58.100 --> 00:30:00.860 approaches. The visible light images taken 760 00:30:00.860 --> 00:30:03.540 with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys, 761 00:30:03.780 --> 00:30:06.700 show four plutoplanetary disks where you 762 00:30:06.700 --> 00:30:09.380 can actually see polar jets of gas 763 00:30:09.940 --> 00:30:12.340 shooting out from the young stars. You can 764 00:30:12.340 --> 00:30:15.100 also see brightly lit nebulae, and 765 00:30:15.100 --> 00:30:17.660 there's this cool effect where the dark band 766 00:30:17.660 --> 00:30:20.420 around each star is actually a shadow 767 00:30:20.420 --> 00:30:23.220 cast onto the nebula by the disk itself. 768 00:30:23.780 --> 00:30:26.540 Avery: That's wild. So we're seeing the shadow of 769 00:30:26.540 --> 00:30:28.100 the planet forming disk. 770 00:30:28.420 --> 00:30:31.260 Anna: Exactly. And each of these systems has 771 00:30:31.260 --> 00:30:33.780 unique characteristics. One, called 772 00:30:33.860 --> 00:30:36.820 HH390, isn't quite edge 773 00:30:36.820 --> 00:30:39.420 on, so you only see one side of its 774 00:30:39.420 --> 00:30:41.020 nebulosity. Another, 775 00:30:41.260 --> 00:30:44.060 TAU042021, 776 00:30:44.220 --> 00:30:47.220 is seen edge on and is in a later stage 777 00:30:47.220 --> 00:30:49.380 of evolution where the dust grains have 778 00:30:49.380 --> 00:30:51.980 already clumped together into larger grains, 779 00:30:52.220 --> 00:30:54.220 which is part of the planet formation 780 00:30:54.220 --> 00:30:54.620 process. 781 00:30:55.100 --> 00:30:57.740 Avery: What about that third one, HH48? 782 00:30:57.980 --> 00:31:00.300 Anna: Oh, that's particularly interesting. 783 00:31:00.700 --> 00:31:03.340 HH48 is actually a 784 00:31:03.340 --> 00:31:06.260 binary protostar system. And you can see 785 00:31:06.260 --> 00:31:08.900 how the gravitational power from the larger 786 00:31:08.900 --> 00:31:11.580 star is shaping the disk around its less 787 00:31:11.580 --> 00:31:14.540 massive companion. It's a great example of 788 00:31:14.540 --> 00:31:17.020 how stellar environments affect planet 789 00:31:17.020 --> 00:31:17.540 formation. 790 00:31:17.940 --> 00:31:19.900 Avery: And, um, the infrared images show something 791 00:31:19.900 --> 00:31:20.260 different. 792 00:31:20.660 --> 00:31:23.220 Anna: Right. The infrared images taken with 793 00:31:23.220 --> 00:31:26.060 Hubble's Wide Field Camera three show 794 00:31:26.060 --> 00:31:28.540 the bright protostars despite being 795 00:31:28.540 --> 00:31:31.180 surrounded by dust. Dust absorbs 796 00:31:31.180 --> 00:31:34.020 starlight and then re emits it in infrared, 797 00:31:34.100 --> 00:31:36.970 which allows Hubble to see the stars. The 798 00:31:36.970 --> 00:31:39.570 jets aren't visible in these infrared images, 799 00:31:39.570 --> 00:31:42.290 but you get a much better view of the stars 800 00:31:42.290 --> 00:31:44.210 themselves and their dusty disks. 801 00:31:44.610 --> 00:31:47.410 Avery: Where are these protoplanetary disks located? 802 00:31:47.970 --> 00:31:50.490 Anna: Most of them are in well known star forming 803 00:31:50.490 --> 00:31:52.890 regions. Several are in the Orion 804 00:31:52.890 --> 00:31:55.610 Molecular Cloud Complex. That's one of the 805 00:31:55.610 --> 00:31:58.290 most active star forming regions visible from 806 00:31:58.290 --> 00:32:01.250 earth, located about 1500 light years 807 00:32:01.250 --> 00:32:04.050 away. Others are in the Perseus Molecular 808 00:32:04.050 --> 00:32:04.450 Cloud. 809 00:32:05.070 --> 00:32:06.950 Avery: Now we also have the James Webb Space 810 00:32:06.950 --> 00:32:09.150 Telescope observing these kinds of objects. 811 00:32:09.310 --> 00:32:11.310 How do Hubble's observations compare? 812 00:32:11.710 --> 00:32:14.430 Anna: That's a great question. JWST 813 00:32:14.670 --> 00:32:17.390 has been doing incredible work on protostars 814 00:32:17.390 --> 00:32:20.270 and protoplanetary disks too. In fact, 815 00:32:20.429 --> 00:32:23.390 there was research published in 2024 based on 816 00:32:23.390 --> 00:32:26.190 JWST observations showing that 817 00:32:26.190 --> 00:32:29.110 some young protostars have layered structures 818 00:32:29.110 --> 00:32:32.030 of winds and jets, inner jets surrounded 819 00:32:32.030 --> 00:32:33.870 by outer cone shaped jets. 820 00:32:34.430 --> 00:32:36.670 Avery: So the two telescopes are complementary. 821 00:32:37.230 --> 00:32:40.150 Anna: Exactly. Hubble excels in visible and 822 00:32:40.150 --> 00:32:42.910 some infrared wavelengths, while JWST 823 00:32:43.230 --> 00:32:45.950 is optimized for infrared. Together they give 824 00:32:45.950 --> 00:32:48.390 us a much more complete picture. For 825 00:32:48.390 --> 00:32:50.510 instance, Hubble can show us those beautiful 826 00:32:50.510 --> 00:32:53.150 jets and nebulae in visible light, While 827 00:32:53.150 --> 00:32:56.070 JWST can peer through dust to 828 00:32:56.070 --> 00:32:58.510 see the nested structure of winds and jets 829 00:32:58.590 --> 00:33:00.320 using different chemical tracers. 830 00:33:01.030 --> 00:33:03.150 Avery: How much longer can we expect Hubble to keep 831 00:33:03.150 --> 00:33:03.670 operating? 832 00:33:04.070 --> 00:33:07.070 Anna: That's the big question. Hubble was launched 833 00:33:07.070 --> 00:33:10.070 in 1990 with an expected 15 year 834 00:33:10.070 --> 00:33:12.510 lifetime, but it's now lasted more than 835 00:33:12.510 --> 00:33:15.350 35 years thanks to five servicing 836 00:33:15.350 --> 00:33:18.310 missions. However, it is showing its age. 837 00:33:18.550 --> 00:33:21.110 The telescope has been losing gyroscopes, 838 00:33:21.190 --> 00:33:23.670 which means it takes more time to point at 839 00:33:23.670 --> 00:33:26.550 targets. Observations are down by about 840 00:33:26.550 --> 00:33:29.430 12% with a corresponding reduction 841 00:33:29.430 --> 00:33:30.470 in science output. 842 00:33:30.940 --> 00:33:32.220 Avery: But it's still functioning, right? 843 00:33:32.620 --> 00:33:35.380 Anna: Oh, yes. NASA expects Hubble to keep 844 00:33:35.380 --> 00:33:37.940 operating into the 2000 and 30s. And there's 845 00:33:37.940 --> 00:33:40.500 been talk, though it's not confirmed, of a 846 00:33:40.500 --> 00:33:42.660 possible servicing mission that could extend 847 00:33:42.660 --> 00:33:43.900 its life even further. 848 00:33:44.460 --> 00:33:46.380 Avery: Who would conduct that servicing mission? 849 00:33:46.940 --> 00:33:49.700 Anna: That's the interesting part. NASA doesn't 850 00:33:49.700 --> 00:33:51.820 have the Space Shuttle anymore, which was 851 00:33:51.820 --> 00:33:54.540 used for all previous servicing missions. Any 852 00:33:54.620 --> 00:33:56.860 future servicing mission would likely involve 853 00:33:56.860 --> 00:33:58.980 a, uh, commercial spacecraft, possibly 854 00:33:58.980 --> 00:34:01.260 something from SpaceX or another company 855 00:34:01.260 --> 00:34:03.000 developing servicing capabilities. 856 00:34:03.560 --> 00:34:05.560 Avery: It would be amazing if Hubble could keep 857 00:34:05.560 --> 00:34:06.840 going for another decade. 858 00:34:07.320 --> 00:34:09.800 Anna: It really would. And if it does, it'll 859 00:34:09.800 --> 00:34:12.200 continue contributing to our understanding of 860 00:34:12.200 --> 00:34:15.000 star formation, planet formation, and 861 00:34:15.080 --> 00:34:17.680 so many other areas of astronomy. These 862 00:34:17.680 --> 00:34:20.400 protoplanetary disk images are a perfect 863 00:34:20.400 --> 00:34:22.840 example of how Hubble is still answering 864 00:34:22.840 --> 00:34:25.680 fundamental questions about how planetary 865 00:34:25.680 --> 00:34:27.480 systems like ours come to be. 866 00:34:27.880 --> 00:34:30.080 Avery: When you think about it, Hubble has literally 867 00:34:30.080 --> 00:34:32.350 changed our view of the universe from the 868 00:34:32.350 --> 00:34:34.790 Hubble Deep Field to these protoplanetary 869 00:34:34.790 --> 00:34:37.190 disks. From measuring the expansion rate of 870 00:34:37.190 --> 00:34:39.390 the universe to studying exoplanet 871 00:34:39.390 --> 00:34:41.430 atmospheres, it's been an incredible 872 00:34:41.430 --> 00:34:42.150 horsework. 873 00:34:42.630 --> 00:34:45.190 Anna: Absolutely. And the fact that it's still 874 00:34:45.190 --> 00:34:47.670 delivering cutting edge Science More than 30 875 00:34:47.749 --> 00:34:50.350 decades after launch is a testament to the 876 00:34:50.350 --> 00:34:52.670 foresight of designing it to be serviceable 877 00:34:52.670 --> 00:34:55.310 and upgradable. It's a model for how we 878 00:34:55.310 --> 00:34:57.070 should think about building space based 879 00:34:57.070 --> 00:34:57.910 observatories. 880 00:34:58.640 --> 00:35:00.360 Avery: Well, that wraps up today's episode of 881 00:35:00.360 --> 00:35:02.800 Astronomy Daily. We covered a lot of ground, 882 00:35:02.960 --> 00:35:05.080 from the uncertain fate of NASA's MAVEN 883 00:35:05.080 --> 00:35:07.720 orbiter to the historic ISS medical 884 00:35:07.720 --> 00:35:10.360 evacuation, from Europe's expanding launch 885 00:35:10.360 --> 00:35:12.680 capabilities to groundbreaking asteroid 886 00:35:12.680 --> 00:35:13.440 defense research. 887 00:35:14.160 --> 00:35:16.480 Anna: And we learned about lunar timekeeping 888 00:35:16.480 --> 00:35:18.720 software that will enable the next generation 889 00:35:18.720 --> 00:35:21.240 of moon missions. AMB saw how Hubble 890 00:35:21.240 --> 00:35:23.360 continues to reveal the birthplaces of 891 00:35:23.360 --> 00:35:26.130 planets after 35 years in orbit. 892 00:35:26.840 --> 00:35:28.800 Avery: It's been quite a week in space news, and 893 00:35:28.800 --> 00:35:30.360 we've only just scratched the surface. 894 00:35:30.840 --> 00:35:33.120 Anna: Before we go, a quick reminder that you can 895 00:35:33.120 --> 00:35:35.560 find more space and astronomy news at our 896 00:35:35.560 --> 00:35:38.360 website astronomydaily.IO and 897 00:35:38.360 --> 00:35:40.400 don't forget to subscribe so you never miss 898 00:35:40.400 --> 00:35:41.080 an episode. 899 00:35:41.400 --> 00:35:43.520 Avery: You can also follow us on social media for 900 00:35:43.520 --> 00:35:45.360 bonus content and updates throughout the 901 00:35:45.360 --> 00:35:45.640 week. 902 00:35:46.040 --> 00:35:47.560 Anna: Thanks for joining us today, everyone. 903 00:35:48.120 --> 00:35:49.960 Avery: Clear skies and we'll see you on Monday. 904 00:35:50.200 --> 00:35:51.560 Astronomy Day 905 00:35:53.320 --> 00:35:56.260 Stories we told the. 906 00:36:01.300 --> 00:36:01.700 Story. 907 00:36:09.620 --> 00:36:10.020 For 908 00:36:10.020 --> 00:36:13.680 tomorrow.