WEBVTT 0 00:00:00.400 --> 00:00:03.080 Anna: Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source for 1 00:00:03.080 --> 00:00:05.800 the latest space and astronomy news. I'm 2 00:00:05.800 --> 00:00:06.320 Anna. 3 00:00:06.400 --> 00:00:08.960 Avery: And I'm Avery. We've got another stellar 4 00:00:08.960 --> 00:00:11.040 episode lined up for you today. Monday, 5 00:00:11.200 --> 00:00:13.760 January 26, 2026. 6 00:00:14.240 --> 00:00:17.240 Anna: That's right. Today we're taking you on quite 7 00:00:17.240 --> 00:00:19.400 a journey through the cosmos. We'll be 8 00:00:19.400 --> 00:00:22.080 exploring two fascinating Mars storeys that 9 00:00:22.080 --> 00:00:24.040 paint very different pictures of the Red 10 00:00:24.040 --> 00:00:26.840 Planet's future. From terraforming dreams 11 00:00:26.840 --> 00:00:29.600 to atmospheric water harvesting for survival. 12 00:00:30.000 --> 00:00:31.840 Avery: Plus, we've got some incredible disc 13 00:00:31.980 --> 00:00:34.100 discoveries from across the universe. We'll 14 00:00:34.100 --> 00:00:36.620 reveal how NASA's Chandra Observatory has 15 00:00:36.620 --> 00:00:39.420 catalogued over 1.3 million x 16 00:00:39.420 --> 00:00:42.420 ray sources, discover an ingenious new use 17 00:00:42.420 --> 00:00:44.540 for earthquake sensors that could save lives, 18 00:00:44.700 --> 00:00:47.620 and uncover why those water worlds we've been 19 00:00:47.620 --> 00:00:50.300 excited about might actually be lava 20 00:00:50.300 --> 00:00:51.340 planets in the skies. 21 00:00:51.740 --> 00:00:54.180 Anna: And we'll finish with a breathtaking look at 22 00:00:54.180 --> 00:00:57.100 our cosmic future, courtesy of the James Webb 23 00:00:57.100 --> 00:00:59.660 Space Telescope's latest images of a dying 24 00:00:59.660 --> 00:01:02.540 star. So settle in because we're about to 25 00:01:02.540 --> 00:01:04.280 explore the univers together. 26 00:01:04.600 --> 00:01:06.520 Avery: Let's get started, Avery. 27 00:01:06.520 --> 00:01:08.560 Anna: Let's kick things off with what could be one 28 00:01:08.560 --> 00:01:11.400 of humanity's most ambitious projects ever. 29 00:01:11.800 --> 00:01:13.720 Scientists are saying it's time to take 30 00:01:13.720 --> 00:01:16.720 terraforming Mars seriously and they've got a 31 00:01:16.720 --> 00:01:18.040 roadmap to make it happen. 32 00:01:18.440 --> 00:01:20.720 Avery: This is fascinating stuff, Anna. Uh, for 33 00:01:20.720 --> 00:01:23.280 decades, terraforming Mars has been the stuff 34 00:01:23.280 --> 00:01:26.040 of science fiction. But new research suggests 35 00:01:26.040 --> 00:01:28.160 we might actually have the tools to pull it 36 00:01:28.160 --> 00:01:30.560 off. A team of planetary scientists, 37 00:01:30.560 --> 00:01:33.200 biologists and engineers has published what 38 00:01:33.200 --> 00:01:35.320 amounts to a blueprint for transforming the 39 00:01:35.320 --> 00:01:37.620 Red Planet into a habitable world. 40 00:01:38.100 --> 00:01:40.580 Anna: What's really interesting is the timeline 41 00:01:40.580 --> 00:01:42.940 they're proposing. This isn't a quick fix. 42 00:01:42.940 --> 00:01:45.220 We're talking about a, uh, multi generational 43 00:01:45.300 --> 00:01:48.220 project that could take centuries. But the 44 00:01:48.220 --> 00:01:50.060 key breakthrough is that they believe we can 45 00:01:50.060 --> 00:01:52.860 use resources already on Mars rather 46 00:01:52.860 --> 00:01:54.580 than shipping everything from Earth. 47 00:01:54.820 --> 00:01:57.420 Avery: Exactly. The plan has three distinct 48 00:01:57.420 --> 00:02:00.220 phases. Phase one is all about warming the 49 00:02:00.220 --> 00:02:03.020 planet. Right now, Mars averages around minus 50 00:02:03.020 --> 00:02:05.970 70 degrees Celsius. The scientists propose 51 00:02:05.970 --> 00:02:08.250 using engineered nanoparticles made from 52 00:02:08.250 --> 00:02:11.010 Martian dust, shaped like tiny rods and 53 00:02:11.010 --> 00:02:13.450 released into the atmosphere. These particles 54 00:02:13.450 --> 00:02:16.170 would trap escaping heat and scatter sunlight 55 00:02:16.170 --> 00:02:18.850 towards the surface, potentially warming Mars 56 00:02:18.850 --> 00:02:20.690 by more than 30 degrees Celsius. 57 00:02:21.090 --> 00:02:23.810 Anna: And here's the clever part. This method is 58 00:02:23.810 --> 00:02:26.770 over 5000 times more efficient than previous 59 00:02:26.770 --> 00:02:29.210 terraforming schemes. University of 60 00:02:29.210 --> 00:02:32.090 Chicago planetary scientist Edwin Kite, one 61 00:02:32.090 --> 00:02:34.530 of the study's co authors, notes that Mars 62 00:02:34.530 --> 00:02:37.160 was habitable in the past. So greening 63 00:02:37.160 --> 00:02:39.160 Mars could be viewed as the ultimate 64 00:02:39.160 --> 00:02:41.240 environmental restoration challenge. 65 00:02:41.800 --> 00:02:44.360 Avery: Phase two brings in biology. Once 66 00:02:44.360 --> 00:02:46.080 temperatures rise enough to melt some of 67 00:02:46.080 --> 00:02:48.960 Mars's vast ice deposits, scientists would 68 00:02:48.960 --> 00:02:50.720 introduce genetically engineered 69 00:02:50.720 --> 00:02:53.680 extremophiles, hardy microorganisms that 70 00:02:53.680 --> 00:02:55.800 can survive in the harshest environments. 71 00:02:56.040 --> 00:02:58.320 These pioneer species would kick off 72 00:02:58.320 --> 00:03:01.120 ecological succession, creating organic 73 00:03:01.120 --> 00:03:03.400 matter and slowly changing the chemistry of 74 00:03:03.400 --> 00:03:04.600 the surface and atmosphere. 75 00:03:05.190 --> 00:03:07.950 Anna: And the final phase is the longest and most 76 00:03:07.950 --> 00:03:10.790 ambitious, building a stable biosphere 77 00:03:10.790 --> 00:03:13.430 with oxygen rich air. The goal is a 78 00:03:13.430 --> 00:03:16.350 0.1 bar oxygen atmosphere, which would be 79 00:03:16.350 --> 00:03:18.870 enough to sustain human life without pressure 80 00:03:18.870 --> 00:03:21.630 suits. Harvard planetary scientist Robin 81 00:03:21.630 --> 00:03:24.270 Wordsworth puts it beautifully. Life is 82 00:03:24.270 --> 00:03:26.830 precious. We know of nowhere else in the 83 00:03:26.830 --> 00:03:29.350 universe where it exists. We have a duty to 84 00:03:29.350 --> 00:03:31.830 conserve it on Earth, but also to consider 85 00:03:31.910 --> 00:03:34.190 how we could begin to propagate it to other 86 00:03:34.190 --> 00:03:34.710 worlds. 87 00:03:35.180 --> 00:03:37.100 Avery: But this isn't just about making Mars 88 00:03:37.100 --> 00:03:39.820 habitable. Nina Lanza from Los Alamos 89 00:03:39.820 --> 00:03:42.220 National Laboratory sees Mars as a prime 90 00:03:42.220 --> 00:03:44.940 testbed for planetary engineering. She 91 00:03:44.940 --> 00:03:46.580 suggests that if we want to learn how to 92 00:03:46.580 --> 00:03:48.900 modify our environment here on Earth to keep 93 00:03:48.900 --> 00:03:51.300 it habitable, maybe it would be better to 94 00:03:51.300 --> 00:03:53.780 experiment on Mars first, rather than being 95 00:03:53.780 --> 00:03:55.420 too bold with our home planet. 96 00:03:55.740 --> 00:03:58.020 Anna: Of course, there are serious ethical 97 00:03:58.020 --> 00:04:00.860 considerations. As Lanza points out, if 98 00:04:00.860 --> 00:04:03.660 we terraform Mars, we'll really change it in 99 00:04:03.660 --> 00:04:06.060 ways that may or may not be reversible. 100 00:04:06.690 --> 00:04:09.090 Mars has its own history and we might lose 101 00:04:09.090 --> 00:04:11.650 the opportunity to study how planets form and 102 00:04:11.650 --> 00:04:13.250 evolve in their natural state. 103 00:04:13.890 --> 00:04:15.970 Avery: The researchers stress that we need to start 104 00:04:15.970 --> 00:04:18.050 preparing now. Even though actual 105 00:04:18.050 --> 00:04:20.810 terraforming is still far off. Upcoming 106 00:04:20.810 --> 00:04:23.650 Mars missions in 2028 or 2031 107 00:04:23.890 --> 00:04:26.330 should include small scale experiments to 108 00:04:26.330 --> 00:04:28.730 test these strategies, such as warming 109 00:04:28.730 --> 00:04:31.690 localised regions. Any technology deployed 110 00:04:31.690 --> 00:04:34.050 must be reversible, controllable and 111 00:04:34.050 --> 00:04:35.250 biologically safe. 112 00:04:35.800 --> 00:04:38.520 Anna: It's an audacious vision. But as the team 113 00:04:38.520 --> 00:04:41.280 points out, 30 years ago, terraforming 114 00:04:41.280 --> 00:04:44.120 Mars wasn't just hard, it was impossible. 115 00:04:44.520 --> 00:04:47.080 Today, with advances in technology and our 116 00:04:47.080 --> 00:04:49.600 understanding of Mars, it's becoming a real 117 00:04:49.600 --> 00:04:52.080 possibility. Whether we should do it is a 118 00:04:52.080 --> 00:04:53.680 question we'll need to answer as a 119 00:04:53.680 --> 00:04:54.280 civilization. 120 00:04:55.160 --> 00:04:57.320 Avery: Sticking with Mars, Anna Our next storey 121 00:04:57.320 --> 00:04:59.760 takes a more immediate look at how future 122 00:04:59.760 --> 00:05:02.040 astronauts might survive on the Red Planet. 123 00:05:02.610 --> 00:05:04.450 New research suggests that the Martian 124 00:05:04.450 --> 00:05:06.890 atmosphere itself could provide a vital 125 00:05:06.890 --> 00:05:08.050 backup water source. 126 00:05:08.530 --> 00:05:11.090 Anna: This is really practical thinking, Avery. 127 00:05:11.170 --> 00:05:13.250 While underground ice remains the most 128 00:05:13.250 --> 00:05:15.530 promising long term water source for Mars 129 00:05:15.530 --> 00:05:17.810 missions, scientists are now exploring 130 00:05:17.810 --> 00:05:20.610 atmospheric water harvesting as an adaptable 131 00:05:20.610 --> 00:05:23.010 solution for scenarios where subsurface 132 00:05:23.010 --> 00:05:24.450 resources are inaccessible. 133 00:05:25.010 --> 00:05:27.890 Avery: The study, led by Dr. Vasilis Englesakis 134 00:05:27.890 --> 00:05:30.650 of Strathclyde University and published in 135 00:05:30.650 --> 00:05:33.270 Advances in Space Research, emphasises 136 00:05:33.270 --> 00:05:34.990 building a self sufficient water 137 00:05:34.990 --> 00:05:37.990 infrastructure. As Dr. Anglizakis explains, 138 00:05:38.310 --> 00:05:40.710 reliable access to water would be essential 139 00:05:40.710 --> 00:05:43.150 for human survival on Mars. Not only for 140 00:05:43.150 --> 00:05:45.510 drinking, but also for producing oxygen and 141 00:05:45.510 --> 00:05:48.150 fuel, which would reduce dependence on Earth 142 00:05:48.150 --> 00:05:48.950 based supplies. 143 00:05:49.430 --> 00:05:52.030 Anna: The challenge is that Mars atmosphere is 144 00:05:52.030 --> 00:05:54.790 extremely thin and cold, but it does 145 00:05:54.790 --> 00:05:57.150 contain trace amounts of water vapour that 146 00:05:57.150 --> 00:05:59.270 could be collected and condensed using 147 00:05:59.350 --> 00:06:02.330 specialised technology. The study introduces 148 00:06:02.330 --> 00:06:04.690 novel approaches inspired by Earth based 149 00:06:04.690 --> 00:06:07.250 dehumidification and sorption technologies. 150 00:06:07.730 --> 00:06:10.210 Avery: What makes this particularly valuable is the 151 00:06:10.210 --> 00:06:12.770 flexibility. While underground ice deposits 152 00:06:12.770 --> 00:06:15.010 are seen as the most practical long term 153 00:06:15.010 --> 00:06:17.490 solution, their accessibility is limited, 154 00:06:17.490 --> 00:06:19.810 especially near likely landing zones for 155 00:06:19.810 --> 00:06:22.530 human missions. Since the precise location of 156 00:06:22.530 --> 00:06:25.050 usable ice is uncertain and excavation 157 00:06:25.050 --> 00:06:27.330 technology is still evolving, having 158 00:06:27.330 --> 00:06:29.250 alternative sources is essential. 159 00:06:29.910 --> 00:06:32.630 Anna: Atmospheric water harvesting offers a mobile, 160 00:06:32.630 --> 00:06:35.230 adaptable alternative. The equipment would be 161 00:06:35.230 --> 00:06:37.590 portable, making it a compelling addition to 162 00:06:37.590 --> 00:06:39.710 the toolkit for sustaining human life on 163 00:06:39.710 --> 00:06:42.710 Mars. As Dr. Inglezakis notes, this 164 00:06:42.710 --> 00:06:44.750 study is one of the first to compare the 165 00:06:44.750 --> 00:06:46.950 various technologies that could be deployed 166 00:06:47.030 --> 00:06:49.190 to recover water in a Martian environment. 167 00:06:49.990 --> 00:06:52.470 Avery: The key takeaway is that future Mars missions 168 00:06:52.470 --> 00:06:54.910 will require not just one solution, but a uh, 169 00:06:54.950 --> 00:06:57.570 layered approach. Combining underground ice 170 00:06:57.570 --> 00:07:00.170 extraction, soil moisture recovery and 171 00:07:00.170 --> 00:07:02.610 atmospheric harvesting will allow missions to 172 00:07:02.610 --> 00:07:04.570 adapt to different environmental and 173 00:07:04.570 --> 00:07:05.690 logistical conditions. 174 00:07:06.250 --> 00:07:08.490 Anna: While the process is energy intensive, 175 00:07:08.810 --> 00:07:11.410 atmospheric harvesting can serve as a crucial 176 00:07:11.410 --> 00:07:14.130 contingency, especially in emergencies or 177 00:07:14.130 --> 00:07:16.410 during long range missions. The research 178 00:07:16.570 --> 00:07:18.850 offers insights that could make future space 179 00:07:18.850 --> 00:07:21.330 exploration missions more self sufficient and 180 00:07:21.330 --> 00:07:22.010 sustainable. 181 00:07:22.620 --> 00:07:25.340 Avery: It's this kind of practical, multifaceted 182 00:07:25.340 --> 00:07:27.460 planning that will ultimately make long 183 00:07:27.460 --> 00:07:29.380 duration Mars missions and potential 184 00:07:29.380 --> 00:07:31.980 colonisation efforts successful. Every 185 00:07:31.980 --> 00:07:34.780 backup system counts when you're 225 186 00:07:34.860 --> 00:07:37.620 million kilometres away from home, from the. 187 00:07:37.620 --> 00:07:39.780 Anna: Red Planet to the entire cosmos. 188 00:07:39.780 --> 00:07:42.660 Avery let's talk about NASA's Chandra X 189 00:07:42.660 --> 00:07:45.180 Ray Observatory and its incredible catalogue 190 00:07:45.180 --> 00:07:46.300 of cosmic recordings. 191 00:07:46.940 --> 00:07:48.700 Avery: Anna uh, this is like the ultimate 192 00:07:48.700 --> 00:07:51.480 astronomical music collection. The Chandra 193 00:07:51.480 --> 00:07:53.400 source catalogue now contains over 194 00:07:53.480 --> 00:07:56.280 1.3 million X ray detections 195 00:07:56.280 --> 00:07:59.240 across the sky, representing 22 years of 196 00:07:59.240 --> 00:08:01.360 observations from one of NASA's great 197 00:08:01.360 --> 00:08:02.200 observatories. 198 00:08:02.600 --> 00:08:04.920 Anna: The latest version, called CSC 199 00:08:05.240 --> 00:08:08.240 2.1 contains data through the end 200 00:08:08.240 --> 00:08:10.440 of 2020 and includes over 201 00:08:10.520 --> 00:08:13.240 400,000 unique compact and 202 00:08:13.240 --> 00:08:16.160 extended sources. This catalogue is 203 00:08:16.160 --> 00:08:18.910 a treasure trove for scientists, providing 204 00:08:18.990 --> 00:08:21.790 everything from precise positions in the sky 205 00:08:21.950 --> 00:08:24.510 to detailed information about X ray 206 00:08:24.510 --> 00:08:24.990 energies. 207 00:08:25.310 --> 00:08:27.790 Avery: What makes this particularly valuable is that 208 00:08:27.790 --> 00:08:30.430 it allows scientists using other telescopes 209 00:08:30.670 --> 00:08:33.230 both on the ground and in space, including 210 00:08:33.390 --> 00:08:36.030 NASA's James Webb and Hubble telescopes, 211 00:08:36.270 --> 00:08:38.950 to combine Chandra's unique X ray data with 212 00:08:38.950 --> 00:08:41.310 information from other wavelengths of light. 213 00:08:41.630 --> 00:08:44.190 Anna: To illustrate the richness of this catalogue, 214 00:08:44.350 --> 00:08:47.190 NASA released a stunning new image of the 215 00:08:47.190 --> 00:08:49.910 Galactic Centre, the region around the 216 00:08:49.910 --> 00:08:52.350 supermassive Black hole at the heart of the 217 00:08:52.350 --> 00:08:54.550 Milky Way, Sagittarius A. 218 00:08:55.270 --> 00:08:57.590 In just a 60 light year span, 219 00:08:57.750 --> 00:09:00.470 Chandra has detected over 3300 220 00:09:00.710 --> 00:09:02.470 individual X ray sources. 221 00:09:02.950 --> 00:09:04.950 Avery: That's incredible when you think about it. 222 00:09:05.190 --> 00:09:07.790 3300 sources and what amounts to a 223 00:09:07.790 --> 00:09:10.710 pinprick on the entire sky. This image 224 00:09:10.710 --> 00:09:13.590 represents 86 observations added together, 225 00:09:14.160 --> 00:09:16.880 totaling over 3 million seconds of Chandra 226 00:09:16.880 --> 00:09:17.680 observing time. 227 00:09:18.080 --> 00:09:20.240 Anna: They've also created a fascinating 228 00:09:20.240 --> 00:09:23.120 sonification of the catalogue, translating 229 00:09:23.120 --> 00:09:25.960 the astronomical data into sound. The 230 00:09:25.960 --> 00:09:28.680 sonification encompasses the new map that 231 00:09:28.680 --> 00:09:31.440 includes all of Chandra's observations from 232 00:09:31.440 --> 00:09:34.360 its launch through 2021, showing how 233 00:09:34.360 --> 00:09:37.160 X ray sources appear and reappear over 234 00:09:37.160 --> 00:09:39.200 time through different musical notes. 235 00:09:39.690 --> 00:09:42.370 Avery: In the visualisation, each X ray detection is 236 00:09:42.370 --> 00:09:45.010 represented by a circle, and the size of a 237 00:09:45.010 --> 00:09:46.610 circle is determined by the number of 238 00:09:46.610 --> 00:09:49.570 detections in that location over time. You 239 00:09:49.570 --> 00:09:51.490 can see the core of the Milky Way in the 240 00:09:51.490 --> 00:09:53.770 centre and the galactic plane stretching 241 00:09:53.770 --> 00:09:55.450 horizontally across the image. 242 00:09:55.850 --> 00:09:58.330 Anna: And here's the exciting part. Since 243 00:09:58.330 --> 00:10:01.050 Chandra continues to be fully operational, 244 00:10:01.290 --> 00:10:03.930 the catalogue keeps growing. The video 245 00:10:04.010 --> 00:10:06.570 transitions to and beyond after 246 00:10:06.570 --> 00:10:09.530 2021 as the telescope continues 247 00:10:09.530 --> 00:10:10.970 to collect new observ. 248 00:10:11.830 --> 00:10:14.110 Avery: This catalogue represents decades of cutting 249 00:10:14.110 --> 00:10:16.350 edge science and will continue to be an 250 00:10:16.350 --> 00:10:18.950 invaluable resource for astronomers studying 251 00:10:18.950 --> 00:10:21.470 everything from stellar evolution to the 252 00:10:21.470 --> 00:10:24.190 nature of black holes. It's a testament to 253 00:10:24.190 --> 00:10:26.550 the longevity and continued productivity of 254 00:10:26.550 --> 00:10:27.670 the Chandra mission. 255 00:10:28.150 --> 00:10:31.030 Anna: Now for something completely different. Avery 256 00:10:31.190 --> 00:10:33.990 scientists have found an ingenious new use 257 00:10:33.990 --> 00:10:36.750 for earthquake sensors, tracking dangerous 258 00:10:36.750 --> 00:10:39.350 space debris as it falls back to Earth. 259 00:10:39.860 --> 00:10:42.300 Avery: This is such a clever solution to a growing 260 00:10:42.300 --> 00:10:45.260 problem. Every year, thousands of discarded 261 00:10:45.260 --> 00:10:47.820 satellites orbit our planet and an increasing 262 00:10:47.820 --> 00:10:49.660 number are falling back into Earth's 263 00:10:49.660 --> 00:10:51.900 atmosphere. While most disintegrate before 264 00:10:51.900 --> 00:10:54.100 hitting the ground, some survive long enough 265 00:10:54.100 --> 00:10:55.380 to pose real dangers. 266 00:10:55.860 --> 00:10:58.500 Anna: Researchers from Johns Hopkins University and 267 00:10:58.500 --> 00:11:01.020 the University of London have demonstrated 268 00:11:01.020 --> 00:11:04.020 that existing seismic monitoring networks can 269 00:11:04.020 --> 00:11:06.150 track these falling satellites with 270 00:11:06.150 --> 00:11:09.070 remarkable accuracy. The investigation was 271 00:11:09.070 --> 00:11:12.070 led by Benjamin Fernando, a UH postdoctoral 272 00:11:12.070 --> 00:11:14.950 fellow at Johns Hopkins, who studies seismic 273 00:11:14.950 --> 00:11:17.750 activity on both Earth and other planets. 274 00:11:18.070 --> 00:11:20.670 Avery: Here's how it works. When falling objects re 275 00:11:20.670 --> 00:11:23.430 enter Earth's atmosphere at high speed, they 276 00:11:23.430 --> 00:11:26.070 generate sonic booms. These sonic 277 00:11:26.070 --> 00:11:28.230 booms create shock waves that ripple through 278 00:11:28.230 --> 00:11:30.750 the ground. And seismometers can detect this 279 00:11:30.750 --> 00:11:32.870 seismic energy just like they detect 280 00:11:32.870 --> 00:11:33.510 earthquakes. 281 00:11:33.960 --> 00:11:36.600 Anna: The team demonstrated this by analysing the 282 00:11:36.600 --> 00:11:39.480 April 2, 2024 re entry 283 00:11:39.560 --> 00:11:42.480 of China's Shenzhou 15 orbital 284 00:11:42.480 --> 00:11:45.144 module. This module was about 3 285 00:11:45.256 --> 00:11:47.640 1/2ft in diameter and weighed over 286 00:11:47.640 --> 00:11:50.200 1.5 tonnes. Definitely 287 00:11:50.200 --> 00:11:52.720 dangerous if any component reached Earth's 288 00:11:52.720 --> 00:11:53.160 surface. 289 00:11:53.560 --> 00:11:56.280 Avery: Using127 Seismometers in 290 00:11:56.280 --> 00:11:58.960 Southern California. They tracked the module 291 00:11:58.960 --> 00:12:01.320 as it travelled at Hypersonic velocities 292 00:12:01.560 --> 00:12:03.960 between Mach 25 and Mach 30, 293 00:12:04.580 --> 00:12:06.780 roughly 10 times faster than the world's 294 00:12:06.780 --> 00:12:09.700 fastest jet. From the seismometer data, they 295 00:12:09.700 --> 00:12:11.780 reconstructed the object's trajectory, 296 00:12:12.100 --> 00:12:14.580 determining it followed a northeasterly path 297 00:12:14.580 --> 00:12:16.580 over Santa Barbara and Las Vegas. 298 00:12:16.980 --> 00:12:19.380 Anna: What's particularly impressive is that their 299 00:12:19.380 --> 00:12:22.100 reconstruction placed the flight path about 300 00:12:22.100 --> 00:12:25.100 25 miles north of the predicted RE entry 301 00:12:25.100 --> 00:12:27.860 path from orbital tracking alone. This 302 00:12:27.860 --> 00:12:29.860 highlights the limitations of current 303 00:12:29.860 --> 00:12:32.380 tracking methods once objects enter the 304 00:12:32.380 --> 00:12:33.940 denser parts of the atmosphere. 305 00:12:34.490 --> 00:12:36.890 Avery: The seismic data also revealed the breakup 306 00:12:36.890 --> 00:12:39.650 pattern. Initially the signals showed the 307 00:12:39.650 --> 00:12:42.290 spacecraft was mostly intact during its high 308 00:12:42.290 --> 00:12:44.810 altitude trajectory. Later signals 309 00:12:44.810 --> 00:12:47.090 indicated complex waveforms showing 310 00:12:47.090 --> 00:12:49.610 fragmentation about eight to 11 311 00:12:49.610 --> 00:12:51.930 unique breakup events within just two 312 00:12:51.930 --> 00:12:52.570 seconds. 313 00:12:52.970 --> 00:12:55.970 Anna: This gradual degradation pattern is crucial 314 00:12:55.970 --> 00:12:58.490 information. It suggested that dense 315 00:12:58.490 --> 00:13:01.170 reinforced components likely survived long 316 00:13:01.170 --> 00:13:03.050 enough to reach the lower atmosphere, 317 00:13:03.510 --> 00:13:05.590 increasing their chances of landing intact. 318 00:13:06.310 --> 00:13:08.790 Avery: Beyond just tracking where debris lands, this 319 00:13:08.790 --> 00:13:10.950 method addresses environmental concerns. 320 00:13:11.110 --> 00:13:13.710 Falling debris can produce tiny particulate 321 00:13:13.710 --> 00:13:15.830 matter containing toxic propellants or 322 00:13:15.830 --> 00:13:18.270 radioactive materials. For example, 323 00:13:18.270 --> 00:13:20.950 Chilean scientists found man made plutonium 324 00:13:20.950 --> 00:13:23.230 in a glacier that they suspect came from the 325 00:13:23.230 --> 00:13:25.990 Russian spacecraft uh, Mars 96, which 326 00:13:25.990 --> 00:13:27.830 disintegrated in 1996. 327 00:13:28.390 --> 00:13:30.910 Anna: The ability to track debris in near real 328 00:13:30.910 --> 00:13:33.510 time, providing accurate locations within 329 00:13:33.510 --> 00:13:36.450 minutes instead of days or weeks would help 330 00:13:36.450 --> 00:13:39.010 authorities respond faster, protect people 331 00:13:39.090 --> 00:13:41.930 and identify hazardous materials. It 332 00:13:41.930 --> 00:13:44.170 could also provide aircraft warnings and 333 00:13:44.170 --> 00:13:45.970 support environmental monitoring. 334 00:13:46.450 --> 00:13:49.010 Avery: As Fernando points out, as launches increase 335 00:13:49.010 --> 00:13:51.530 and more large satellite constellations reach 336 00:13:51.530 --> 00:13:53.850 the end of their design lives, tools like 337 00:13:53.850 --> 00:13:56.570 this will become increasingly important. We 338 00:13:56.570 --> 00:13:58.730 need as many different ways as possible to 339 00:13:58.730 --> 00:14:00.610 track and characterise space debris. 340 00:14:01.210 --> 00:14:03.290 Anna: Avery Our next storey is going to make 341 00:14:03.290 --> 00:14:05.810 exoplanet hunters rethink some of their most 342 00:14:05.810 --> 00:14:08.370 exciting discoveries. It turns out that 343 00:14:08.370 --> 00:14:11.290 98% of what we thought were potential water 344 00:14:11.290 --> 00:14:14.090 worlds might actually be lava planets. 345 00:14:14.650 --> 00:14:16.290 Avery: This is a real wake up call for the 346 00:14:16.290 --> 00:14:18.490 scientific community. Anna New uh, research 347 00:14:18.570 --> 00:14:20.770 led by Rob Calder at the University of 348 00:14:20.770 --> 00:14:23.610 Cambridge suggests that nearly all known sub 349 00:14:23.610 --> 00:14:26.570 Neptune exoplanets, previously thought to be 350 00:14:26.570 --> 00:14:29.490 potential ocean bearing hycean worlds, are 351 00:14:29.490 --> 00:14:31.730 far more likely to be composed of molten 352 00:14:31.730 --> 00:14:32.170 rock. 353 00:14:32.910 --> 00:14:35.630 Anna: Sub Neptunes are the most commonly discovered 354 00:14:35.630 --> 00:14:38.230 type of exoplanet, larger than Earth but 355 00:14:38.230 --> 00:14:41.190 smaller than Neptune. Yet their exact nature 356 00:14:41.190 --> 00:14:43.830 has remained elusive. Because our solar 357 00:14:43.830 --> 00:14:46.110 system offers no direct equivalent. 358 00:14:46.510 --> 00:14:48.750 Understanding what these worlds are made of 359 00:14:48.750 --> 00:14:51.350 is crucial for the search for life and for 360 00:14:51.350 --> 00:14:53.790 refining our models of planetary formation. 361 00:14:54.270 --> 00:14:56.590 Avery: The problem stems from what scientists call 362 00:14:56.590 --> 00:14:59.390 degeneracy, when one set of observations 363 00:14:59.470 --> 00:15:02.400 can be interpreted in multiple ways. Take the 364 00:15:02.400 --> 00:15:05.080 case of planet K2 18b. 365 00:15:05.560 --> 00:15:07.920 Researchers celebrated its methane rich 366 00:15:07.920 --> 00:15:10.320 ammonia Poor atmosphere as evidence of a 367 00:15:10.320 --> 00:15:13.040 Hycean planet with thick hydrogen atmosphere 368 00:15:13.040 --> 00:15:14.520 overlying vast oceans. 369 00:15:15.080 --> 00:15:17.999 Anna: But here's the twist. Kaldar and his team 370 00:15:17.999 --> 00:15:20.560 point out that molten rock can also dissolve 371 00:15:20.560 --> 00:15:23.160 ammonia just like water can. So the 372 00:15:23.160 --> 00:15:25.720 absence of ammonia doesn't necessarily mean 373 00:15:25.720 --> 00:15:28.320 there are oceans. It could just as easily 374 00:15:28.320 --> 00:15:30.040 indicate a magma ocean. 375 00:15:30.620 --> 00:15:32.300 Avery: To test their theory, the researchers 376 00:15:32.300 --> 00:15:34.060 developed a new model called the 377 00:15:34.060 --> 00:15:37.060 Solidification shoreline. This tool connects 378 00:15:37.060 --> 00:15:39.220 the amount of energy a planet receives from 379 00:15:39.220 --> 00:15:41.140 its star with the star's effective 380 00:15:41.140 --> 00:15:43.940 temperature. By plotting known exoplanets 381 00:15:43.940 --> 00:15:46.059 against this framework, they could estimate 382 00:15:46.059 --> 00:15:47.900 whether a planet was likely to have 383 00:15:47.900 --> 00:15:50.220 maintained a magma ocean since formation. 384 00:15:50.780 --> 00:15:53.420 Anna: Using the Proteus model to simulate internal 385 00:15:53.420 --> 00:15:56.300 heat dynamics, they found that 98% of 386 00:15:56.300 --> 00:15:59.020 sub Neptune exoplanets fall above 387 00:15:59.020 --> 00:16:01.250 this shoreline. That means they receive 388 00:16:01.250 --> 00:16:03.970 enough stellar energy to keep their interiors 389 00:16:03.970 --> 00:16:06.490 hot and molten, rather than allowing them to 390 00:16:06.490 --> 00:16:07.890 cool into solid bodies. 391 00:16:08.450 --> 00:16:11.330 Avery: For astrobiologists and exoplanet hunters, 392 00:16:11.330 --> 00:16:13.730 the implications are significant. The 393 00:16:13.730 --> 00:16:16.329 Hycean world hypothesis had offered an 394 00:16:16.329 --> 00:16:19.130 enticing planets that might host life 395 00:16:19.130 --> 00:16:22.050 in vast subsurface oceans protected by thick 396 00:16:22.050 --> 00:16:24.850 atmospheres. This new research suggests that 397 00:16:24.850 --> 00:16:26.450 vision may have been premature. 398 00:16:27.150 --> 00:16:29.070 Anna: It's important to note that this doesn't 399 00:16:29.070 --> 00:16:32.070 close the door on water worlds altogether. It 400 00:16:32.070 --> 00:16:34.030 simply urges caution against over 401 00:16:34.030 --> 00:16:36.790 interpretation and reminds us that planetary 402 00:16:36.790 --> 00:16:39.470 evolution can take multiple paths. As 403 00:16:39.470 --> 00:16:42.070 Calver and his team make clear, the lack of 404 00:16:42.070 --> 00:16:44.670 reliable atmospheric mass data across many 405 00:16:44.670 --> 00:16:47.070 exoplanets limits current models. 406 00:16:47.630 --> 00:16:49.750 Avery: While this conclusion might seem like a 407 00:16:49.750 --> 00:16:52.430 setback, it actually offers a more stable 408 00:16:52.430 --> 00:16:55.070 foundation for future research. It's better 409 00:16:55.070 --> 00:16:57.070 to have a realistic understanding of what 410 00:16:57.070 --> 00:16:59.670 these planets are than to chase false hopes 411 00:16:59.670 --> 00:17:00.470 of habitability. 412 00:17:01.030 --> 00:17:03.830 Anna: Exactly. Science progresses through these 413 00:17:03.830 --> 00:17:06.590 kinds of corrections and refinements. We're 414 00:17:06.590 --> 00:17:08.510 building a more accurate picture of the 415 00:17:08.510 --> 00:17:11.150 cosmos, even if it means letting go of some 416 00:17:11.150 --> 00:17:12.230 earlier assumptions. 417 00:17:12.790 --> 00:17:14.830 Avery: And Anna for our final storey. 418 00:17:14.830 --> 00:17:17.510 Today we have something both beautiful and 419 00:17:17.510 --> 00:17:20.510 sobering. A glimpse into the future fate 420 00:17:20.510 --> 00:17:21.510 of our own sun. 421 00:17:22.120 --> 00:17:24.920 Anna: The James Webb Space Telescope has captured 422 00:17:24.920 --> 00:17:27.720 stunning new images of the Helix Nebula, 423 00:17:27.800 --> 00:17:30.160 one of the closest planetary nebulae to 424 00:17:30.160 --> 00:17:33.080 Earth. And what it reveals is absolutely 425 00:17:33.080 --> 00:17:33.680 breathtaking. 426 00:17:33.680 --> 00:17:36.360 Avery: Avery, also known as the eye of 427 00:17:36.360 --> 00:17:39.160 God, the Helix Nebula is located about 428 00:17:39.160 --> 00:17:41.720 650 light years away in the 429 00:17:41.720 --> 00:17:44.680 constellation Aquarius. It's the result of a 430 00:17:44.680 --> 00:17:47.560 sun like star that exhausted its nuclear fuel 431 00:17:47.560 --> 00:17:50.530 and shed its outer layers into space, leaving 432 00:17:50.530 --> 00:17:53.170 behind a dense core called a white dwarf. 433 00:17:53.570 --> 00:17:56.210 Anna: Webb's near infrared camera captured 434 00:17:56.210 --> 00:17:59.090 pillars of gas that look like thousands of 435 00:17:59.090 --> 00:18:01.690 comets with extended tails tracing the 436 00:18:01.690 --> 00:18:04.210 circumference of an expanding shell of gas. 437 00:18:04.610 --> 00:18:07.370 These structures form when BLISTERING winds 438 00:18:07.370 --> 00:18:09.890 of hot moving gas from the dying star 439 00:18:10.130 --> 00:18:13.090 crash into slower moving colder shells 440 00:18:13.090 --> 00:18:15.850 of dust and gas that were shed earlier in the 441 00:18:15.850 --> 00:18:16.530 star's life. 442 00:18:17.150 --> 00:18:19.510 Avery: What makes Webb's view so special is the 443 00:18:19.510 --> 00:18:22.470 level of detail it reveals. The image shows 444 00:18:22.470 --> 00:18:24.350 the stark transition between different 445 00:18:24.350 --> 00:18:27.310 temperature hot ionised gas near 446 00:18:27.310 --> 00:18:30.190 the centre where the white dwarf sits, cooler 447 00:18:30.190 --> 00:18:32.590 molecular hydrogen farther out and 448 00:18:32.670 --> 00:18:34.950 protective pockets where more complex 449 00:18:34.950 --> 00:18:37.310 molecules can begin to form within dust 450 00:18:37.310 --> 00:18:37.870 clouds. 451 00:18:38.110 --> 00:18:40.030 Anna: The colour in the image represents 452 00:18:40.030 --> 00:18:42.870 temperature and chemistry. Blue marks the 453 00:18:42.870 --> 00:18:44.910 hottest gas being blasted by the white 454 00:18:44.910 --> 00:18:47.790 dwarf's radiation. Yellow regions show 455 00:18:47.790 --> 00:18:50.230 gas that's cooled as it moves away from the 456 00:18:50.230 --> 00:18:52.710 white dwarf. And the coolest material at the 457 00:18:52.710 --> 00:18:54.510 edge of the nebula appears red. 458 00:18:54.990 --> 00:18:57.110 Avery: This isn't just a pretty picture. It's 459 00:18:57.110 --> 00:18:59.550 showing us stellar recycling in action. 460 00:18:59.950 --> 00:19:02.469 The gas and dust being expelled don't 461 00:19:02.469 --> 00:19:04.910 disappear. They're incorporated into the 462 00:19:04.910 --> 00:19:07.550 interstellar medium, enriching clouds with 463 00:19:07.550 --> 00:19:09.590 heavy elements forged in the stellar 464 00:19:09.590 --> 00:19:12.390 interior. This is the raw material from 465 00:19:12.390 --> 00:19:14.670 which new stars and planets will eventually 466 00:19:14.670 --> 00:19:14.990 form. 467 00:19:15.510 --> 00:19:18.110 Anna: According to NASA, this image is essentially 468 00:19:18.110 --> 00:19:20.870 a window into our own Future. In about 469 00:19:20.950 --> 00:19:23.710 5 billion years, our sun will enter 470 00:19:23.710 --> 00:19:26.670 this same phase, creating a similar nebula 471 00:19:26.670 --> 00:19:28.470 as it fades into a white dwarf. 472 00:19:28.870 --> 00:19:31.630 Avery: The Helix Nebula has been imaged many times 473 00:19:31.630 --> 00:19:33.790 over the nearly two centuries since it was 474 00:19:33.790 --> 00:19:36.390 discovered by both ground based and space 475 00:19:36.390 --> 00:19:38.950 based observatories. But Webb's near 476 00:19:38.950 --> 00:19:41.830 infrared view brings unprecedented detail, 477 00:19:42.350 --> 00:19:44.670 revealing structures that were invisible to 478 00:19:44.670 --> 00:19:45.710 previous telescopes. 479 00:19:46.110 --> 00:19:48.350 Anna: Scientists can use these detailed 480 00:19:48.350 --> 00:19:51.110 observations to refine their understanding of 481 00:19:51.110 --> 00:19:54.110 stellar evolution, how stars end their lives 482 00:19:54.270 --> 00:19:56.550 and how they distribute the elements they've 483 00:19:56.550 --> 00:19:59.150 created back into the galaxy. Every 484 00:19:59.230 --> 00:20:02.070 shell of gas represents a different episode 485 00:20:02.070 --> 00:20:04.790 of mass loss, creating a timeline of the 486 00:20:04.790 --> 00:20:05.950 star's final stages. 487 00:20:06.590 --> 00:20:08.990 Avery: It's a powerful reminder that even in death, 488 00:20:09.230 --> 00:20:11.990 stars continue to shape the universe. The 489 00:20:11.990 --> 00:20:14.550 atoms that will one day form new worlds, 490 00:20:14.550 --> 00:20:17.470 perhaps even new life, are being forged and 491 00:20:17.470 --> 00:20:20.230 distributed in nebulae like this right now. 492 00:20:20.470 --> 00:20:23.270 Anna: It's both humbling and inspiring to see 493 00:20:23.270 --> 00:20:25.830 our cosmic future laid out so clearly. 494 00:20:26.150 --> 00:20:28.870 The Helix Nebula shows us that endings in 495 00:20:28.870 --> 00:20:31.830 space can be as magnificent as beginnings. 496 00:20:32.310 --> 00:20:34.430 Avery: And that wraps up today's journey through the 497 00:20:34.430 --> 00:20:37.230 cosmos. From terraforming dreams to 498 00:20:37.230 --> 00:20:39.960 atmospheric water harvesting on Mars, from 499 00:20:40.110 --> 00:20:42.510 from X ray catalogues mapping millions of 500 00:20:42.510 --> 00:20:45.510 cosmic sources to earthquake sensors tracking 501 00:20:45.510 --> 00:20:48.390 falling satellites, we've covered incredible 502 00:20:48.390 --> 00:20:48.990 ground today. 503 00:20:49.390 --> 00:20:51.790 Anna: We've also learned to be more cautious about 504 00:20:51.790 --> 00:20:54.670 those exciting water world discoveries and 505 00:20:54.670 --> 00:20:57.270 witnessed the beautiful death of a sun like 506 00:20:57.270 --> 00:20:59.550 star through Webb's remarkable eyes. 507 00:20:59.790 --> 00:21:02.150 It's been quite a day in space in astronomy 508 00:21:02.150 --> 00:21:02.430 news. 509 00:21:02.750 --> 00:21:04.910 Avery: Thanks for joining us on Astronomy Daily. 510 00:21:05.070 --> 00:21:06.590 Remember, you can find us at 511 00:21:06.590 --> 00:21:09.470 astronomydaily.IO for all our 512 00:21:09.470 --> 00:21:11.470 episodes, show notes and more. 513 00:21:12.650 --> 00:21:14.490 Anna: And don't forget to follow us on social 514 00:21:14.490 --> 00:21:17.490 media. Astrodaily Pod we 515 00:21:17.490 --> 00:21:19.410 love hearing from our listeners about what 516 00:21:19.410 --> 00:21:21.050 storeys excite you most. 517 00:21:21.370 --> 00:21:24.170 Avery: Until next time, keep looking up clear 518 00:21:24.170 --> 00:21:24.970 skies everyone. 519 00:21:34.730 --> 00:21:34.810 Mhm. 520 00:21:37.540 --> 00:21:48.860 Sam.