WEBVTT 0 00:00:00.400 --> 00:00:03.280 Anna: Picture this. A volcanic eruption 1 00:00:03.520 --> 00:00:06.080 so massive it could swallow entire 2 00:00:06.240 --> 00:00:09.080 countries. Now, imagine witnessing it 3 00:00:09.080 --> 00:00:11.760 from space on a moon 400 4 00:00:11.920 --> 00:00:14.240 million miles away. Welcome to 5 00:00:14.240 --> 00:00:16.920 Astronomy Daily, where today we're bringing 6 00:00:16.920 --> 00:00:19.280 you the most explosive story from 7 00:00:19.280 --> 00:00:21.600 Jupiter's volcanic moon IO, 8 00:00:21.920 --> 00:00:23.680 literally. I'm Anna. 9 00:00:23.680 --> 00:00:26.480 Avery: And I'm Avery. Anna. When NASA's Juno 10 00:00:26.480 --> 00:00:28.760 spacecraft captured the largest volcanic 11 00:00:28.760 --> 00:00:31.560 eruption ever seen on IO, it reminded 12 00:00:31.560 --> 00:00:34.340 me why we explore these distant worlds. The 13 00:00:34.340 --> 00:00:36.500 sheer scale of what's happening out there is 14 00:00:36.500 --> 00:00:37.260 mind blowing. 15 00:00:37.740 --> 00:00:40.620 Anna: Absolutely. And speaking of exploration, 16 00:00:40.860 --> 00:00:43.580 we've also got some groundbreaking news about 17 00:00:43.740 --> 00:00:46.660 nuclear propulsion that could revolutionize 18 00:00:46.660 --> 00:00:49.420 deep space travel. Plus discoveries about 19 00:00:49.500 --> 00:00:52.340 ancient Martian beaches, the communication 20 00:00:52.340 --> 00:00:55.060 networks keeping Artemis astronauts connected 21 00:00:55.060 --> 00:00:57.660 around the moon. A lunar world tour 22 00:00:57.740 --> 00:01:00.620 happening in February, and fascinating 23 00:01:00.620 --> 00:01:03.540 research about life's ingredients forming in 24 00:01:03.540 --> 00:01:03.810 space. 25 00:01:03.960 --> 00:01:04.200 Avery: Place. 26 00:01:04.520 --> 00:01:06.760 Anna: It's Friday, January 30, 27 00:01:06.920 --> 00:01:09.240 2026, and you're listening to 28 00:01:09.240 --> 00:01:10.440 Astronomy Daily. 29 00:01:10.840 --> 00:01:13.000 Avery: Let's get into it then, Avery. 30 00:01:13.000 --> 00:01:15.480 Anna: Let's dive right into this spectacular 31 00:01:15.480 --> 00:01:17.480 volcanic eruption on IO. 32 00:01:17.800 --> 00:01:20.600 NASA's Juno spacecraft has been giving us 33 00:01:20.600 --> 00:01:23.560 unprecedented views of Jupiter's most 34 00:01:23.560 --> 00:01:26.440 volcanically active moon. And this latest 35 00:01:26.440 --> 00:01:29.080 discovery is absolutely stunning. 36 00:01:29.680 --> 00:01:32.080 Avery: It really is, Anna. Uh, during Juno's 37 00:01:32.080 --> 00:01:34.904 71st close flyby of Jupiter on January 38 00:01:35.016 --> 00:01:37.920 28, the spacecraft captured what scientists 39 00:01:37.920 --> 00:01:40.480 are calling the largest volcanic eruption 40 00:01:40.640 --> 00:01:43.400 ever observed on I.O. we're talking about a 41 00:01:43.400 --> 00:01:46.080 plume that's absolutely colossal in 42 00:01:46.080 --> 00:01:48.680 scale. The plume was spotted at a volcano 43 00:01:48.680 --> 00:01:51.640 called Kanehikili. And here's what makes this 44 00:01:51.640 --> 00:01:54.640 so remarkable. The plume extends an estimated 45 00:01:54.640 --> 00:01:57.120 240km, or about 46 00:01:57.280 --> 00:02:00.040 150 miles above IO's 47 00:02:00.040 --> 00:02:00.480 surface. 48 00:02:01.070 --> 00:02:03.750 Anna: That's incredible. To put that in perspective 49 00:02:03.750 --> 00:02:05.670 for our listeners, that's roughly the 50 00:02:05.670 --> 00:02:08.350 distance from New York to Philadelphia. But 51 00:02:08.350 --> 00:02:10.830 instead of a road trip, we're talking about a 52 00:02:10.830 --> 00:02:13.510 volcanic plume shooting straight up into 53 00:02:13.510 --> 00:02:13.870 space. 54 00:02:14.510 --> 00:02:17.390 Avery: Exactly. And what makes IO such a volcanic 55 00:02:17.390 --> 00:02:20.030 powerhouse is the immense tidal forces it 56 00:02:20.030 --> 00:02:22.830 experiences. Jupiter's massive gravity, 57 00:02:22.830 --> 00:02:24.870 combined with the gravitational pulls from 58 00:02:24.870 --> 00:02:27.150 its sister moons Europa and ganymede, 59 00:02:27.230 --> 00:02:29.470 literally flexes IO's interior, 60 00:02:30.010 --> 00:02:32.450 generating enormous amounts of heat. It's 61 00:02:32.450 --> 00:02:34.970 like continuously kneading dough, but on a 62 00:02:34.970 --> 00:02:36.010 planetary scale. 63 00:02:36.410 --> 00:02:39.170 Anna: The images Juno captured are fascinating, 64 00:02:39.170 --> 00:02:41.850 too. Scientists used the spacecraft's 65 00:02:41.850 --> 00:02:44.650 Juno Cam instrument, and what they saw was 66 00:02:44.650 --> 00:02:47.170 this enormous umbrella shaped plume 67 00:02:47.170 --> 00:02:49.650 extending from Kane Hakili. Scott 68 00:02:49.650 --> 00:02:52.130 Bolton, Juno's principal investigator from 69 00:02:52.130 --> 00:02:54.850 the Southwest Research Institute, described 70 00:02:54.850 --> 00:02:57.410 it as both enormous and incredibly 71 00:02:57.410 --> 00:03:00.250 faint, which is why these observations are 72 00:03:00.330 --> 00:03:01.210 so valuable. 73 00:03:01.880 --> 00:03:03.960 Avery: Right. And this isn't just about impressive 74 00:03:03.960 --> 00:03:06.680 visuals. Understanding IO's volcanism helps 75 00:03:06.680 --> 00:03:08.760 us learn about tidal heating processes 76 00:03:08.760 --> 00:03:11.680 throughout the solar system. Plus, Juno has 77 00:03:11.680 --> 00:03:13.960 been on quite the journey the Spacecraft has 78 00:03:13.960 --> 00:03:16.680 made 18 close flybys of IO since 79 00:03:16.680 --> 00:03:19.640 entering Jupiter's orbit back in 2016, and 80 00:03:19.640 --> 00:03:21.800 it's scheduled to continue observations until 81 00:03:21.800 --> 00:03:23.320 at least 2025. 82 00:03:23.880 --> 00:03:26.760 Anna: Actually, Avery, we're now in 2026. 83 00:03:27.270 --> 00:03:29.630 So Juno has been extended beyond that 84 00:03:29.630 --> 00:03:32.230 original timeline, which is fantastic news 85 00:03:32.230 --> 00:03:34.670 for continued observations. This 86 00:03:34.670 --> 00:03:37.550 discovery really highlights how active 87 00:03:37.550 --> 00:03:40.510 and dynamic IO remains. It's not just 88 00:03:40.510 --> 00:03:43.069 the most volcanically active body in our 89 00:03:43.069 --> 00:03:46.030 solar system. It's constantly surprising us 90 00:03:46.030 --> 00:03:48.070 with the scale of its eruptions. 91 00:03:48.550 --> 00:03:50.470 Avery: Absolutely. And, um, there's something almost 92 00:03:50.470 --> 00:03:53.470 poetic about witnessing such raw primordial 93 00:03:53.470 --> 00:03:56.180 forces at work on another world. While we 94 00:03:56.180 --> 00:03:58.260 deal with our relatively tame volcanic 95 00:03:58.260 --> 00:04:01.220 activity here on Earth, IO is experiencing 96 00:04:01.220 --> 00:04:03.940 eruptions that dwarf anything in our planet's 97 00:04:03.940 --> 00:04:04.180 history. 98 00:04:04.740 --> 00:04:07.340 Anna: It's a powerful reminder that our solar 99 00:04:07.340 --> 00:04:10.100 system is far from a static, quiet 100 00:04:10.100 --> 00:04:12.620 place. There are worlds out there where the 101 00:04:12.620 --> 00:04:15.100 geology is extreme, beyond our 102 00:04:15.100 --> 00:04:16.500 everyday comprehension. 103 00:04:16.980 --> 00:04:19.460 Alright, let's shift gears from volcanic 104 00:04:19.460 --> 00:04:21.780 fury to the cutting edge of space 105 00:04:21.860 --> 00:04:24.040 propulsion technology. Anna? 106 00:04:24.040 --> 00:04:25.900 Avery: Uh, if we're going to send humans deeper into 107 00:04:25.900 --> 00:04:28.660 the solar system, to Mars and beyond, we need 108 00:04:28.660 --> 00:04:30.460 better propulsion systems than what we 109 00:04:30.460 --> 00:04:32.700 currently have. That's where nuclear 110 00:04:32.700 --> 00:04:35.380 technology comes in. And NASA just achieved a 111 00:04:35.380 --> 00:04:36.620 significant milestone. 112 00:04:37.100 --> 00:04:39.340 Anna: This is exciting stuff, Avery. 113 00:04:39.580 --> 00:04:42.140 NASA and the Department of Energy recently 114 00:04:42.300 --> 00:04:45.140 fired up crusty. And yes, that's actually 115 00:04:45.140 --> 00:04:47.780 the acronym they went with, which stands for 116 00:04:47.780 --> 00:04:50.540 Kilopower Reactor using Stirling 117 00:04:50.540 --> 00:04:53.540 Technology. This test represents a major 118 00:04:53.620 --> 00:04:56.420 step toward making nuclear power a reality 119 00:04:56.500 --> 00:04:58.100 for deep space missions. 120 00:04:58.500 --> 00:05:01.100 Avery: I love that acronym. But beyond the fun name, 121 00:05:01.100 --> 00:05:03.900 this is serious technology. CRUSTY is a 122 00:05:03.900 --> 00:05:05.860 small fission reactor designed to provide 123 00:05:05.860 --> 00:05:08.380 reliable power in the harsh environments of 124 00:05:08.380 --> 00:05:10.980 deep space. We're talking about a system that 125 00:05:10.980 --> 00:05:13.180 could generate around 10 kilowatts of 126 00:05:13.180 --> 00:05:15.900 electrical power continuously for over a 127 00:05:15.900 --> 00:05:16.340 decade. 128 00:05:16.820 --> 00:05:19.100 Anna: 10 kilowatts might not sound like much 129 00:05:19.100 --> 00:05:22.060 compared to a power plant, but in space, it's 130 00:05:22.060 --> 00:05:24.720 transformational. That's enough to power life 131 00:05:24.720 --> 00:05:27.440 support systems, scientific instruments and 132 00:05:27.520 --> 00:05:30.400 habitats on Mars or the Moon. Traditional 133 00:05:30.400 --> 00:05:32.760 solar panels become less effective the 134 00:05:32.760 --> 00:05:35.200 farther you get from the Sun. But nuclear 135 00:05:35.200 --> 00:05:36.880 reactors work anywhere. 136 00:05:37.280 --> 00:05:40.080 Avery: Exactly. And the technology behind CRUSTY is 137 00:05:40.080 --> 00:05:42.800 elegantly simple in concept, if complex in 138 00:05:42.800 --> 00:05:45.600 execution. It uses a solid uranium 139 00:05:45.600 --> 00:05:48.240 core about the size of a paper towel roll. 140 00:05:48.480 --> 00:05:50.760 Nuclear fission in this core generates heat, 141 00:05:50.760 --> 00:05:53.320 which is then converted to electricity using 142 00:05:53.320 --> 00:05:55.920 Stirling engines. These are highly efficient 143 00:05:55.920 --> 00:05:58.120 engines that convert heat to mechanical 144 00:05:58.120 --> 00:06:00.320 energy and then to electricity. 145 00:06:00.640 --> 00:06:03.480 Anna: What I find particularly impressive is the 146 00:06:03.480 --> 00:06:05.920 safety engineering. These systems are 147 00:06:05.920 --> 00:06:08.880 designed to be inherently safe with passive 148 00:06:08.880 --> 00:06:11.360 cooling systems that don't require active 149 00:06:11.360 --> 00:06:13.760 intervention. During the Nevada test, 150 00:06:14.000 --> 00:06:16.480 engineers put CRUSTY through its paces, 151 00:06:16.800 --> 00:06:19.680 simulating various failure Scenarios to prove 152 00:06:19.680 --> 00:06:21.600 it could handle extreme conditions. 153 00:06:22.360 --> 00:06:24.280 Avery: Right. And this isn't just theoretical 154 00:06:24.280 --> 00:06:26.600 anymore. The successful test demonstrates 155 00:06:26.600 --> 00:06:29.360 that the technology works. Now NASA is 156 00:06:29.360 --> 00:06:31.720 looking at scaling this up for actual mission 157 00:06:31.720 --> 00:06:34.680 use. Imagine a Mars base powered by one 158 00:06:34.680 --> 00:06:36.840 or more of these reactors, Providing 159 00:06:36.840 --> 00:06:39.720 consistent power regardless of dust storms, 160 00:06:39.800 --> 00:06:41.320 nighttime or seasons. 161 00:06:41.560 --> 00:06:44.280 Anna: It also opens up possibilities for missions 162 00:06:44.280 --> 00:06:47.280 to the outer solar system. Places like Titan 163 00:06:47.280 --> 00:06:49.640 or Europa, where solar power is 164 00:06:49.640 --> 00:06:52.360 essentially useless, Suddenly become more 165 00:06:52.360 --> 00:06:54.940 accessible. With relia viable nuclear power 166 00:06:54.940 --> 00:06:57.380 sources, we could have rovers or even 167 00:06:57.460 --> 00:07:00.420 submarines Exploring these distant worlds. 168 00:07:00.740 --> 00:07:03.100 Avery: And let's not forget about nuclear thermal 169 00:07:03.100 --> 00:07:05.220 propulsion, which is related but different. 170 00:07:05.700 --> 00:07:08.020 That's where nuclear reactors heat propellant 171 00:07:08.020 --> 00:07:10.620 to generate thrust, potentially cutting Mars 172 00:07:10.620 --> 00:07:13.140 transit times in half between power 173 00:07:13.140 --> 00:07:15.940 generation and propulsion. Nuclear technology 174 00:07:16.020 --> 00:07:18.740 could be the key to humanity becoming a truly 175 00:07:18.740 --> 00:07:20.020 space faring civilization. 176 00:07:20.640 --> 00:07:22.840 Anna: It's one of those technologies that sounds 177 00:07:22.840 --> 00:07:25.440 like science fiction, but is rapidly becoming 178 00:07:25.520 --> 00:07:28.520 science fact. The crusty test proves we 179 00:07:28.520 --> 00:07:31.080 have the engineering capability. Now it's 180 00:07:31.080 --> 00:07:33.680 about implementation and integration into 181 00:07:33.680 --> 00:07:35.440 actual mission architectures. 182 00:07:35.760 --> 00:07:38.280 Speaking of missions, let's head to Mars, 183 00:07:38.280 --> 00:07:40.680 where scientists have discovered intriguing 184 00:07:40.680 --> 00:07:42.240 evidence of ancient water. 185 00:07:42.640 --> 00:07:44.760 Avery: Anna, uh, one of the biggest questions about 186 00:07:44.760 --> 00:07:46.840 Mars Is whether it ever had conditions 187 00:07:46.840 --> 00:07:49.220 suitable for life. Every time we find 188 00:07:49.220 --> 00:07:51.620 evidence of ancient water, we get closer to 189 00:07:51.620 --> 00:07:53.700 answering that question. And this latest 190 00:07:53.700 --> 00:07:56.020 discovery is particularly compelling. 191 00:07:56.340 --> 00:07:58.900 Anna: It really is. Avery researchers have 192 00:07:58.900 --> 00:08:01.100 identified what they believe to be ancient 193 00:08:01.100 --> 00:08:04.099 beach deposits in Mars Gale Crater, where the 194 00:08:04.099 --> 00:08:06.660 Curiosity rover has been exploring. These 195 00:08:06.660 --> 00:08:09.420 aren't just random rocks. They're sedimentary 196 00:08:09.420 --> 00:08:11.620 layers that tell a story of water 197 00:08:11.940 --> 00:08:14.490 lapping at ancient shorelines but billions of 198 00:08:14.490 --> 00:08:15.010 years ago. 199 00:08:15.410 --> 00:08:17.690 Avery: The evidence comes from detailed analysis of 200 00:08:17.690 --> 00:08:20.050 rock formations that show characteristics 201 00:08:20.050 --> 00:08:22.410 consistent with beach environments. We're 202 00:08:22.410 --> 00:08:24.930 talking about specific grain sizes, Layering 203 00:08:24.930 --> 00:08:27.450 patterns, and chemical signatures that match 204 00:08:27.450 --> 00:08:29.530 what we see in coastal deposits here on 205 00:08:29.530 --> 00:08:31.890 Earth. The team identified features like 206 00:08:31.890 --> 00:08:34.370 ripple marks and cross bedding that form when 207 00:08:34.370 --> 00:08:36.130 waves and currents move sediment. 208 00:08:36.450 --> 00:08:38.970 Anna: What makes this discovery particularly 209 00:08:38.970 --> 00:08:41.930 significant for habitability Is that beach 210 00:08:41.930 --> 00:08:44.370 environments on Earth Are incredibly 211 00:08:44.370 --> 00:08:47.290 productive ecosystems. The interface between 212 00:08:47.370 --> 00:08:49.930 water and land, where you have tides, 213 00:08:50.250 --> 00:08:52.890 nutrients washing in, and varying 214 00:08:52.890 --> 00:08:55.850 conditions, Creates opportunities for diverse 215 00:08:55.850 --> 00:08:56.650 life forms. 216 00:08:57.050 --> 00:08:59.970 Avery: Exactly. If Mars had stable shorelines 217 00:08:59.970 --> 00:09:02.170 billions of years ago, those would have been 218 00:09:02.170 --> 00:09:04.770 prime locations for any potential Martian 219 00:09:04.770 --> 00:09:07.610 life to emerge and thrive. You've got water, 220 00:09:07.610 --> 00:09:09.850 you've got minerals being concentrated, 221 00:09:09.930 --> 00:09:12.290 you've got energy from the sun, all the 222 00:09:12.290 --> 00:09:13.830 ingredients that life needs. 223 00:09:14.150 --> 00:09:16.230 Anna: The research also helps us understand 224 00:09:16.550 --> 00:09:19.310 Mars's climate history. For beaches to 225 00:09:19.310 --> 00:09:22.150 exist, you need a stable body of water 226 00:09:22.150 --> 00:09:24.990 over extended periods, not just brief 227 00:09:24.990 --> 00:09:27.790 flooding events. This suggests that ancient 228 00:09:27.790 --> 00:09:30.350 Mars had a more Earth like hydrological 229 00:09:30.350 --> 00:09:33.150 cycle Than we might have thought with lakes 230 00:09:33.150 --> 00:09:35.910 or seas that persisted long enough to create 231 00:09:35.910 --> 00:09:37.270 these coastal features. 232 00:09:37.590 --> 00:09:39.470 Avery: And the location in Gale Crater is 233 00:09:39.470 --> 00:09:42.140 significant too. Curiosity has been slowly 234 00:09:42.140 --> 00:09:44.100 climbing Mount Sharp in the center of the 235 00:09:44.100 --> 00:09:46.700 crater. And as it climbs, it's essentially 236 00:09:46.700 --> 00:09:48.860 reading through Mars's geological history. 237 00:09:48.940 --> 00:09:51.740 Like pages in a book, these beach deposits 238 00:09:51.740 --> 00:09:54.060 fit into a broader narrative of a wetter, 239 00:09:54.060 --> 00:09:55.500 warmer, ancient Mars. 240 00:09:55.900 --> 00:09:58.500 Anna: The implications for future missions are 241 00:09:58.500 --> 00:10:01.340 huge. If we can identify ancient beaches 242 00:10:01.340 --> 00:10:04.220 and shorelines, those become high priority 243 00:10:04.220 --> 00:10:06.780 targets for searching for biosignatures, 244 00:10:07.260 --> 00:10:10.060 chemical or physical evidence that life once 245 00:10:10.060 --> 00:10:13.020 existed. We might want to send future rovers 246 00:10:13.100 --> 00:10:15.580 or even sample return missions to these 247 00:10:15.580 --> 00:10:16.060 locations. 248 00:10:16.620 --> 00:10:19.060 Avery: It's also worth noting how far we've come in 249 00:10:19.060 --> 00:10:21.660 our understanding of Mars From a planet we 250 00:10:21.660 --> 00:10:24.460 once thought was completely dry and dead. We 251 00:10:24.460 --> 00:10:27.220 now know Mars had rivers, lakes, possibly 252 00:10:27.220 --> 00:10:29.940 oceans, beaches and deltas. Each 253 00:10:29.940 --> 00:10:32.260 discovery adds another piece to the puzzle of 254 00:10:32.260 --> 00:10:33.980 what ancient Mars was really like. 255 00:10:34.640 --> 00:10:37.560 Anna: And who knows, maybe one day humans will 256 00:10:37.560 --> 00:10:40.320 walk on those ancient beaches 4 billion 257 00:10:40.480 --> 00:10:43.440 years after waves last touched them. But 258 00:10:43.440 --> 00:10:45.920 before we send humans to Mars, we need to 259 00:10:45.920 --> 00:10:48.320 perfect operations around the moon. 260 00:10:48.640 --> 00:10:50.920 Let's talk about the communication networks 261 00:10:50.920 --> 00:10:52.960 being prepared for Artemis 2. 262 00:10:53.280 --> 00:10:55.920 Avery: Anna. When the Artemis 2 crew ventures around 263 00:10:55.920 --> 00:10:58.120 the moon next year, they'll be farther from 264 00:10:58.120 --> 00:11:00.320 Earth than any humans have Traveled since 265 00:11:00.320 --> 00:11:02.640 Apollo 17 in 1972. 266 00:11:03.230 --> 00:11:05.670 Keeping them connected requires an incredibly 267 00:11:05.670 --> 00:11:08.030 sophisticated network of ground stations and 268 00:11:08.030 --> 00:11:08.750 satellites. 269 00:11:09.070 --> 00:11:11.670 Anna: That's right, Avery. NASA has been building 270 00:11:11.670 --> 00:11:14.510 out what's essentially a cosmic communication 271 00:11:14.510 --> 00:11:17.230 infrastructure. And the latest updates show 272 00:11:17.230 --> 00:11:19.470 that the networks are ready to support the 273 00:11:19.470 --> 00:11:21.790 mission. We're talking about the Deep Space 274 00:11:21.790 --> 00:11:24.710 Network, the Near Space Network, and even 275 00:11:24.710 --> 00:11:26.750 partnerships with commercial satellite 276 00:11:26.750 --> 00:11:27.310 operators. 277 00:11:27.790 --> 00:11:29.510 Avery: Let's break down what makes this so 278 00:11:29.510 --> 00:11:31.830 challenging. When the Orient craft carrying 279 00:11:31.830 --> 00:11:34.310 the Artemis 2 crew swings around the far side 280 00:11:34.310 --> 00:11:36.650 of Moon, there's a period where they're 281 00:11:36.650 --> 00:11:38.850 completely out of direct line of sight with 282 00:11:38.850 --> 00:11:41.330 Earth. No radio signals can reach them 283 00:11:41.330 --> 00:11:43.570 directly because the moon itself is in the 284 00:11:43.570 --> 00:11:43.850 way. 285 00:11:44.170 --> 00:11:46.570 Anna: That's where the tracking and data relay 286 00:11:46.570 --> 00:11:49.290 satellites come in. NASA has been upgrading 287 00:11:49.290 --> 00:11:52.170 the Deep Space Network, those massive dish 288 00:11:52.170 --> 00:11:55.050 antennas in California, Spain and Australia 289 00:11:55.530 --> 00:11:57.930 that communicate with distant spacecraft. 290 00:11:58.170 --> 00:12:00.850 These dishes can pick up incredibly faint 291 00:12:00.850 --> 00:12:03.650 signals from the Orion capsule even when it's 292 00:12:03.650 --> 00:12:06.090 280,000 miles away. 293 00:12:06.700 --> 00:12:08.860 Avery: The redundancy built into the system is 294 00:12:08.860 --> 00:12:11.620 impressive, too. Multiple ground stations can 295 00:12:11.620 --> 00:12:14.340 track Orion simultaneously, ensuring that if 296 00:12:14.340 --> 00:12:16.740 one station loses signal due to weather or 297 00:12:16.740 --> 00:12:19.340 other issues, others can maintain contact. 298 00:12:19.740 --> 00:12:21.780 The crew will never be more than a few 299 00:12:21.780 --> 00:12:23.580 minutes without a communication link. 300 00:12:23.820 --> 00:12:26.580 Anna: What's particularly interesting is how much 301 00:12:26.580 --> 00:12:29.220 bandwidth they'll have. Unlike the Apollo 302 00:12:29.220 --> 00:12:31.620 missions, which had relatively limited voice 303 00:12:31.620 --> 00:12:34.310 communications, they Artemis 2 will have high 304 00:12:34.310 --> 00:12:36.870 definition video capabilities, allowing 305 00:12:36.870 --> 00:12:39.350 mission control and the public to see what 306 00:12:39.350 --> 00:12:42.230 the crew sees in real time. Imagine 307 00:12:42.230 --> 00:12:45.230 watching HD footage of Earth rising over 308 00:12:45.230 --> 00:12:47.430 the lunar horizon as it happens. 309 00:12:47.990 --> 00:12:50.830 Avery: That's going to be spectacular. And it's 310 00:12:50.830 --> 00:12:53.030 not just about keeping the crew connected for 311 00:12:53.030 --> 00:12:55.430 safety, though that's obviously paramount. 312 00:12:55.830 --> 00:12:58.750 These communications enable real time science 313 00:12:58.750 --> 00:13:01.510 operations, medical monitoring, and the kind 314 00:13:01.510 --> 00:13:03.710 of public engagement that makes these 315 00:13:03.710 --> 00:13:05.250 missions so inspiring. 316 00:13:05.730 --> 00:13:08.050 Anna: The testing that's been done is extensive 317 00:13:08.130 --> 00:13:10.410 too. NASA has run countless 318 00:13:10.410 --> 00:13:12.930 simulations putting the network through every 319 00:13:13.010 --> 00:13:15.890 conceivable scenario, from normal operations 320 00:13:15.970 --> 00:13:18.570 to emergency situations. They've 321 00:13:18.570 --> 00:13:20.730 verified that commands can be sent and 322 00:13:20.730 --> 00:13:23.130 received quickly enough to respond to any 323 00:13:23.130 --> 00:13:24.370 issues that might arise. 324 00:13:25.010 --> 00:13:27.290 Avery: And this network infrastructure they're 325 00:13:27.290 --> 00:13:29.770 building for Artemis will surf missions for 326 00:13:29.770 --> 00:13:32.320 decades to come. When we establish a 327 00:13:32.320 --> 00:13:34.960 permanent lunar base, when we send astronauts 328 00:13:34.960 --> 00:13:37.840 to Mars, these same communication principles 329 00:13:37.840 --> 00:13:40.240 and much of the same hardware will be the 330 00:13:40.240 --> 00:13:42.240 backbone keeping everyone connected. 331 00:13:42.720 --> 00:13:45.280 Anna: It's a reminder that space exploration 332 00:13:45.280 --> 00:13:48.280 isn't just about rockets and spacecraft. It's 333 00:13:48.280 --> 00:13:50.400 about building the infrastructure to support 334 00:13:50.640 --> 00:13:52.480 human presence beyond Earth. 335 00:13:53.040 --> 00:13:55.320 Speaking of the Moon, there's a beautiful 336 00:13:55.320 --> 00:13:57.800 celestial show coming up in February that 337 00:13:57.800 --> 00:13:59.360 everyone can enjoy from Earth. 338 00:13:59.920 --> 00:14:01.960 Avery: Anna I, uh, love these monthly lunar 339 00:14:01.960 --> 00:14:04.480 highlights. February is shaping up to be a 340 00:14:04.480 --> 00:14:06.560 great month for lunar watchers, with some 341 00:14:06.560 --> 00:14:08.640 beautiful planetary conjunctions and 342 00:14:08.640 --> 00:14:10.480 interesting phases to observe. 343 00:14:10.960 --> 00:14:13.720 Anna: Absolutely, Avery. Let's walk our listeners 344 00:14:13.720 --> 00:14:16.320 through what they can expect. The month kicks 345 00:14:16.320 --> 00:14:18.800 off with the Moon in a waxing crescent phase, 346 00:14:18.800 --> 00:14:21.560 and on February 1st and 2nd, we'll see a 347 00:14:21.560 --> 00:14:24.360 lovely conjunction with Venus. If you look to 348 00:14:24.360 --> 00:14:27.080 the western sky just after sunset, you'll see 349 00:14:27.080 --> 00:14:29.160 the bright crescent Moon paired with the 350 00:14:29.160 --> 00:14:30.480 brilliant evening star. 351 00:14:31.170 --> 00:14:33.730 Avery: Venus is always stunning, and when you add 352 00:14:33.730 --> 00:14:35.890 the Moon to the picture, it creates one of 353 00:14:35.890 --> 00:14:38.410 those scenes that makes even non astronomers 354 00:14:38.410 --> 00:14:41.370 stop and look up. A few days later, on 355 00:14:41.370 --> 00:14:44.290 February 4, the moon will pass near Saturn, 356 00:14:44.290 --> 00:14:46.610 giving us another beautiful evening pairing. 357 00:14:47.010 --> 00:14:49.770 Anna: The full moon arrives on February 12, and 358 00:14:49.770 --> 00:14:52.090 this one has a particularly evocative 359 00:14:52.090 --> 00:14:55.090 traditional name, the Snow Moon. Various 360 00:14:55.090 --> 00:14:57.250 cultures have called it the Hunger Moon or 361 00:14:57.250 --> 00:14:59.410 the Storm Moon, reflecting the harsh 362 00:14:59.410 --> 00:15:01.530 conditions of late winter in the northern 363 00:15:01.530 --> 00:15:04.010 hemisphere. Of course, the Moon doesn't know 364 00:15:04.010 --> 00:15:06.810 what season it is down here, so the name is 365 00:15:06.810 --> 00:15:08.650 purely a human cultural addition. 366 00:15:09.370 --> 00:15:12.290 Avery: After full phase, the Moon starts waning, and 367 00:15:12.290 --> 00:15:14.170 this is when morning observers get their 368 00:15:14.170 --> 00:15:17.010 treats. On February 17, early 369 00:15:17.010 --> 00:15:19.850 risers can catch the waning gibbous Moon near 370 00:15:19.850 --> 00:15:22.330 the star Spica in the constellation Virgo. 371 00:15:22.730 --> 00:15:25.530 Then on February 20, the moon makes a 372 00:15:25.530 --> 00:15:27.730 close approach to Jupiter, which will still 373 00:15:27.730 --> 00:15:29.690 be prominent in the pre dawn sky. 374 00:15:30.360 --> 00:15:32.800 Anna: One of my favorite things to watch is how the 375 00:15:32.800 --> 00:15:35.360 Moon appears to march across the sky from 376 00:15:35.360 --> 00:15:38.040 night to night, visiting different stars and 377 00:15:38.040 --> 00:15:40.760 planets. It's like a natural cosmic 378 00:15:40.760 --> 00:15:43.080 clock, and you don't need any equipment 379 00:15:43.080 --> 00:15:45.080 beyond your eyes to enjoy it, though 380 00:15:45.080 --> 00:15:47.240 binoculars definitely enhance the view. 381 00:15:47.800 --> 00:15:50.360 Avery: Speaking of binoculars, the waxing crescent 382 00:15:50.360 --> 00:15:52.600 phases early in the month are perfect for 383 00:15:52.600 --> 00:15:55.160 observing what astronomers call Earthshine. 384 00:15:55.570 --> 00:15:57.490 That's when you can see the dark portion of 385 00:15:57.490 --> 00:16:00.170 the Moon faintly illuminated by sunlight 386 00:16:00.170 --> 00:16:02.770 reflecting off Earth. It's this beautiful 387 00:16:02.770 --> 00:16:05.730 ghostly glow that reveals the entire disc. 388 00:16:06.210 --> 00:16:08.250 Anna: And for anyone interested in lunar 389 00:16:08.250 --> 00:16:10.810 photography, those conjunctions with Venus 390 00:16:10.810 --> 00:16:13.250 and Jupiter offer fantastic opportunities. 391 00:16:13.570 --> 00:16:16.090 You don't need expensive equipment. Even a 392 00:16:16.090 --> 00:16:18.170 smartphone can capture these scenes if you 393 00:16:18.170 --> 00:16:20.450 have steady hands or a simple tripod. 394 00:16:20.770 --> 00:16:23.610 Avery: The Moon's February tour also serves as a 395 00:16:23.610 --> 00:16:26.490 nice reminder of celestial mechanics. Every 396 00:16:26.490 --> 00:16:29.230 conjunction, every phase we see is the result 397 00:16:29.230 --> 00:16:32.070 of the precise dance between the Earth, Moon, 398 00:16:32.070 --> 00:16:34.710 and Sun. The fact that we can predict 399 00:16:34.710 --> 00:16:36.910 exactly when these events will occur 400 00:16:36.910 --> 00:16:39.550 centuries in advance is a testament to our 401 00:16:39.550 --> 00:16:42.470 understanding of orbital dynamics, though. 402 00:16:42.470 --> 00:16:45.470 Anna: Mark your calendars, folks. February 1st and 403 00:16:45.470 --> 00:16:48.350 2nd for Venus, February 4th for Saturn. 404 00:16:48.510 --> 00:16:51.470 February 12th for the full snow moon, and 405 00:16:51.470 --> 00:16:54.060 February 20th for Jupiter. The Moon is 406 00:16:54.060 --> 00:16:56.660 putting on a world tour, and admission is 407 00:16:56.660 --> 00:16:57.820 absolutely free. 408 00:16:58.300 --> 00:17:00.340 Now let's wrap up with some fascinating 409 00:17:00.340 --> 00:17:02.860 research about the chemistry of life itself. 410 00:17:03.500 --> 00:17:06.020 Avery: Anna? Uh, one of the most profound questions 411 00:17:06.020 --> 00:17:08.860 in science is how life began. And new 412 00:17:08.860 --> 00:17:10.860 research is revealing that some of the key 413 00:17:10.860 --> 00:17:13.780 ingredients for life might form spontaneously 414 00:17:13.780 --> 00:17:16.660 in space without any need for planets or 415 00:17:16.660 --> 00:17:17.660 special conditions. 416 00:17:17.900 --> 00:17:20.220 Anna: This is absolutely fascinating research, 417 00:17:20.220 --> 00:17:22.780 Avery. Scientists have discovered that 418 00:17:22.780 --> 00:17:25.460 complex organic molecules, the building 419 00:17:25.460 --> 00:17:27.940 blocks of proteins and other biological 420 00:17:27.940 --> 00:17:30.740 molecules, can form in the harsh environment 421 00:17:30.820 --> 00:17:33.300 of interstellar space. We're not talking 422 00:17:33.300 --> 00:17:35.700 about life itself, but the chemical 423 00:17:35.700 --> 00:17:38.340 precursors that life needs, right? 424 00:17:38.420 --> 00:17:41.100 Avery: The study focus on amino acids, which are the 425 00:17:41.100 --> 00:17:43.900 fundamental components of proteins on Earth. 426 00:17:43.900 --> 00:17:45.940 We know amino acids can form through 427 00:17:45.940 --> 00:17:48.490 biological processes, but this research 428 00:17:48.570 --> 00:17:51.010 shows they can also arise through purely 429 00:17:51.010 --> 00:17:53.970 chemical reactions in space in molecular 430 00:17:53.970 --> 00:17:56.490 clouds, where stars and planets eventually 431 00:17:56.490 --> 00:17:56.810 form. 432 00:17:57.210 --> 00:17:59.450 Anna: What makes this possible is the chemistry 433 00:17:59.450 --> 00:18:01.890 happening on the surfaces of dust grains in 434 00:18:01.890 --> 00:18:04.530 these molecular clouds. These grains are 435 00:18:04.530 --> 00:18:06.650 coated with ices, frozen water, 436 00:18:06.970 --> 00:18:09.330 methane, ammonia, and other simple 437 00:18:09.330 --> 00:18:12.330 molecules. When cosmic rays or ultraviolet 438 00:18:12.330 --> 00:18:14.860 light hits these ices, it triggers 439 00:18:14.860 --> 00:18:17.180 chemical reactions that can build up more 440 00:18:17.180 --> 00:18:18.380 complex molecules. 441 00:18:18.700 --> 00:18:21.340 Avery: The researchers used laboratory simulations 442 00:18:21.340 --> 00:18:23.340 that recreate the conditions in space. 443 00:18:23.740 --> 00:18:26.380 Extreme cold, vacuum, and radiation. 444 00:18:26.700 --> 00:18:29.300 They found that even without any biological 445 00:18:29.300 --> 00:18:31.700 input, amino acids and other organic 446 00:18:31.700 --> 00:18:34.700 molecules form readily. It's like space is 447 00:18:34.700 --> 00:18:37.060 running a giant chemistry experiment, and the 448 00:18:37.060 --> 00:18:38.940 products are the ingredients for life. 449 00:18:39.260 --> 00:18:42.110 Anna: This has Huge implications for astrobiology. 450 00:18:42.110 --> 00:18:44.830 And if life's building blocks form naturally 451 00:18:44.830 --> 00:18:47.070 in space, then they're probably common 452 00:18:47.070 --> 00:18:49.750 throughout the galaxy. When new star systems 453 00:18:49.750 --> 00:18:51.910 form from these molecular clouds, they 454 00:18:51.910 --> 00:18:54.510 inherit these organic molecules. Young 455 00:18:54.510 --> 00:18:56.670 planets get seeded with the chemistry they 456 00:18:56.670 --> 00:18:58.629 need for life to potentially emerge. 457 00:18:58.950 --> 00:19:01.230 Avery: We've actually found evidence supporting this 458 00:19:01.230 --> 00:19:04.030 on Earth. Some meteorites, particularly 459 00:19:04.030 --> 00:19:07.030 carbonaceous chondrites, contain amino acids 460 00:19:07.030 --> 00:19:09.470 and other organic compounds that formed in 461 00:19:09.470 --> 00:19:11.980 space before. Before the solar system even 462 00:19:11.980 --> 00:19:14.860 existed. When these meteorites fall to Earth, 463 00:19:14.860 --> 00:19:17.220 they deliver this prebiotic chemistry. 464 00:19:17.300 --> 00:19:19.580 Anna: It raises an interesting question about the 465 00:19:19.580 --> 00:19:22.420 origin of life on Earth. Did life arise 466 00:19:22.420 --> 00:19:25.180 entirely from scratch using molecules made 467 00:19:25.180 --> 00:19:27.740 here? Or did it get a head start from 468 00:19:27.740 --> 00:19:30.260 organic compounds delivered by comets and 469 00:19:30.260 --> 00:19:33.260 asteroids? The answer might be both. A 470 00:19:33.260 --> 00:19:35.780 combination of homegrown chemistry and 471 00:19:35.780 --> 00:19:36.820 cosmic delivery. 472 00:19:37.320 --> 00:19:39.720 Avery: And when we search for life on other worlds. 473 00:19:39.720 --> 00:19:41.960 Mars, Europa, Enceladus, 474 00:19:42.040 --> 00:19:44.400 exoplanets. Knowing that the basic 475 00:19:44.400 --> 00:19:46.920 ingredients are probably already there makes 476 00:19:46.920 --> 00:19:49.520 the question shift from could light's 477 00:19:49.520 --> 00:19:52.120 chemistry exist there? To did conditions 478 00:19:52.200 --> 00:19:54.760 allow that chemistry to become biology? 479 00:19:54.840 --> 00:19:56.800 Anna: The research also highlights how 480 00:19:56.800 --> 00:19:59.560 interconnected everything in the universe is 481 00:19:59.800 --> 00:20:02.280 the same. Processes that create stars and 482 00:20:02.280 --> 00:20:04.840 planets also create the molecules 483 00:20:04.840 --> 00:20:07.740 necessary for life. We're literally made of 484 00:20:07.740 --> 00:20:10.460 stardust, but we're also made of chemistry 485 00:20:10.460 --> 00:20:12.140 that happens between the stars. 486 00:20:12.380 --> 00:20:15.260 Avery: It's humbling and inspiring at the same time. 487 00:20:15.580 --> 00:20:17.820 The universe isn't just capable of creating 488 00:20:17.900 --> 00:20:20.740 stars and galaxies. It's also a place where 489 00:20:20.740 --> 00:20:23.100 the precursors to life form naturally, 490 00:20:23.260 --> 00:20:25.580 waiting for the right conditions to spark 491 00:20:25.580 --> 00:20:26.940 something extraordinary. 492 00:20:27.180 --> 00:20:29.420 Anna: Which brings us full circle to why we 493 00:20:29.420 --> 00:20:31.780 explore. Every mission, every 494 00:20:31.780 --> 00:20:34.620 observation, every discovery adds to our 495 00:20:34.620 --> 00:20:36.900 understanding not just of the universe, but 496 00:20:36.900 --> 00:20:39.340 our place in it and the processes that made 497 00:20:39.340 --> 00:20:39.980 us possible. 498 00:20:40.460 --> 00:20:42.900 Avery: What a journey we've taken today. Anna. From 499 00:20:42.900 --> 00:20:45.780 explosive volcanism on IO to the chemistry 500 00:20:45.780 --> 00:20:48.380 of life forming in the depths of space, it's 501 00:20:48.380 --> 00:20:49.500 been a packed episode. 502 00:20:49.660 --> 00:20:51.900 Anna: It really has. Avery. We've covered 503 00:20:51.900 --> 00:20:54.620 groundbreaking propulsion technology, ancient 504 00:20:54.620 --> 00:20:57.380 Martian beaches, cutting edge communications 505 00:20:57.380 --> 00:21:00.180 for Artemis, and a beautiful lunar tour to 506 00:21:00.180 --> 00:21:02.660 look forward to. If today's episode shows us 507 00:21:02.660 --> 00:21:05.300 anything, it's that the universe never stops 508 00:21:05.300 --> 00:21:06.060 surprising us. 509 00:21:06.570 --> 00:21:08.850 Avery: Before we sign off, a quick reminder that you 510 00:21:08.850 --> 00:21:10.690 can find all the links to the stories we 511 00:21:10.690 --> 00:21:13.090 discussed today in our show notes. And if you 512 00:21:13.090 --> 00:21:15.050 enjoyed this episode, please share it with 513 00:21:15.050 --> 00:21:17.370 someone who loves space as much as you do. 514 00:21:17.530 --> 00:21:20.170 Anna: You can find us on all major podcast 515 00:21:20.170 --> 00:21:22.770 platforms, and we're also on YouTubeMusic if 516 00:21:22.770 --> 00:21:24.730 you prefer to watch. We're 517 00:21:24.810 --> 00:21:27.370 AstroDaily Pod on social media, 518 00:21:27.690 --> 00:21:29.690 and you can visit our website at 519 00:21:29.690 --> 00:21:32.050 astronomydaily IO for 520 00:21:32.050 --> 00:21:34.130 articles, transcripts and more.